General Information

Enjoying Sex Post Menopause - How to Make it Work Again

2010-01-24T16:19:00.000+07:00

Ever been privy to middle aged women's whispers corner? You know what to expect. The talks of 'my husband can't just get me hot anymore', 'maybe you should get a younger man' 'eat more cabbages'. Well, you may find one thing that may work, but you will surely find is that you are not alone!

Encouraging, is it? But also depressing to know that after all, most of the fancy women you see wallowing in wealth and seemingly happy are after all not happy!

Let's first of all understand what every woman should expect at some stage in life, and men at a later stage. What is in this post menopause period?

Menopause is the period during which most women stop experiencing the monthly period. It simply indicates that the period of sexual activity is diminishing. The body is no longer able to make babies, which to Mother Nature that is the main purpose of sex. The body therefore cuts off most of the resources associated with sex. This includes the hormones such as estrogen and the energies that go along with the event. This simply turns off the mind from menopause sex.

Now that we know what menopause is, let's explore the things that make menopause sex boring or steals off the fire.

Previous disappointments: this is mainly related to previous disappointments in sexual intercourse. Failure to experience orgasm in previous encounters can leave a bad taste and take away expectation. Similarly, painful experiences that are often caused by wounds or illness that affect the sexual organs such as STIs can also diminish desire for sex.

Guilt: this may be as a result of rape, of abortion or any other event in which one feels that they could have done something to avoid the result.

Poor communication with sex partner: you may be complaining about lack of satisfaction to yourself. Yet your sex partner holds the key to changing that. Many women get to their menopause with spouses who are not aware of their failures to making the woman happy.

Lax muscles: this is part of the natural process of aging, the vaginal wall loses its ability to have tensile effect.

Diminishing estrogen levels: this too is a natural process that comes with age. It leads to thinning of vaginal wall and diminishing vaginal fluids.

So how can you get back the fire?

Communicate: tell your spouse what really makes you tic. Speak to a sex therapists and physician; it may be a medical condition.

Eat well: no better solution. Even in the case surgery or exercises, you need to eat well.

Exercise: this works by increasing the energy levels and making the body responsive to sex.

How to Fix Outlook RPC Error

2010-01-09T18:58:00.000+07:00

An RPC error can occur when the registry values that connect Outlook to your Exchange Server become corrupted. Outlook communicates with Exchange Server using Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs). A procedure is a small piece of code designed to do one particular thing. The programs you run on your computer may be made up of hundreds, even thousands of procedures.

In most desktop programs, all the procedures will run on your computer, but for some applications procedures may be run on a remote computer. Outlook, for example, has many procedures that run on your computer, but it communicates with Exchange Server by executing remote procedures.

Checking the Registry

The good news is that the Outlook RPC error can often be fixed. The bad news is you need to edit the Registry by hand to fix it. The Registry is a database used by Windows to keep track of information used to run the different applications you have installed, as well as Windows itself.

The first thing to do is to open RegEdit.exe, a built-in Windows program for editing the Registry.

WARNING: Changing or deleting entries in the Registry can make it so that Windows does not run. Be very careful and change only exactly what you need to change to fix this bug

You can run regedit.exe by typing it into the Windows Address bar. If that isn't visible, you can choose Run from the Start menu (in Windows XP) or type "regedit.exe" directly into the program search edit box on the Start Menu (in Vista).

In RegEdit, navigate through the folders on the left to the following location:

• HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Rpc\ClientProtocols
On the right side you should see four entries:
• ncacn_np
• ncacn_tcp
• ncacn_udp
• ncacn_http.

In the data column next to each entry, it should say "rpcrt4.dll". If there are not four entries or any of the data doesn't reference the rpcrt4.dll, then you may have found your problem.

Adding an Entry
To add a missing entry:

• Right click on Client Protocols on the left side.
• Point to New, and then select String Value from the context menu.

Modifying an Entry Value
To change the value for an entry:

• Double click on the entry
• In the Edit String dialog window enter "rpcrt4.dll" (no quotes), then press the OK button.

When you have all four entries correctly installed, close RegEdit, and run Outlook to see if this fixed the problem.

Facebook Farmville Cheats = Free Farmville Cash

2010-01-02T23:08:00.000+07:00

Farmville can appear to be a basic farm simulation at first glance, I mean all you have to do is plant crops and harvest them right? There's so much more to the game than that! Not only do you have to plow, plant, and harvest crops, you have to decide what crops to crow and when. Some crops take a just a few hours to grow while some take a few days. Obviously the longer the crop takes to grow, the higher the reward for harvesting it.

Don't plant quick growing crops and think you can come back a couple days later and reap the rewards. If you don't harvest the crop in time, it will die and you'll be stuck with having to clean up the mess, not getting any rewards. The time it takes for a crop to die is the same it takes for it to fully grow. For example, if the crop takes one day to grow, you have another day on top of that to harvest it before it dies.

But there's more to Farmville than just crops. There's also animals and trees. These are very different compared to crops because not only can you move them around your farm after getting them, they never expire once they're ready to harvest. You could have a whole forest of banana trees ready to harvest and they would never go bad. Now the rewards for harvesting trees and animals isn't as high as crops, but it's much less work and they take up a lot less space.

A good idea is to visit your neighbors' farms every day. When you visit their farms, Farmville will ask if you want to help them out with a random task. Always say yes because you get a nice reward for helping and this can really provide a nice reward in the long run, especially if you're just starting out.

Don't waste another moment. Start playing FarmVille with FarmVille Secrets today - trust me, you'll never look at this game the same again. Don't waste another second wondering if your crops are going to make it. Get the guide that the entire Internet is using to blast through FarmVille at top speed! Go to http://www.squidoo.com/secretsoffarmville to learn more!

Skin treatment for acne

2009-12-31T10:01:00.000+07:00

Many people are looking for the best skin treatment for acne and they thought that the best skin treatment for acne is the creams sold in the pharmacies. The constant search for the most effective treatment also means that they are spending large amount of money on products that do not work.

Instead of buying products that advertised heavily in the market which works mostly on hype, we can use natural products in our skin treatment for acne to help us solve our acne problems. Follow these 6 steps to help treat your acne now.

1. Avoid touching your face with your hand. Acne sufferers tend to have the bad habit of touching their face with their hand regularly and this will lead to more breakouts.

2. Try to add on more fruits and vegetables into your diet as it will help you to keep a strong immune system that will prevent more breakouts.

3. Make sure that you drink at least 8 - 10 glasses of water daily to ensure that your body is able to eliminate toxins efficiently.

4. Use aloe vera to help you cure your acne. Aloe vera has the properties that can help deal with inflammation and promotes healing. Another upside of it is that it is affordable and does not pose any harm to your skin even with daily use.

5. Maintain a regular exercise routine and keep in mind to wipe away the perspiration to prevent your pores from clogging up. Exercising will help to maintain your immune system that can help to fight against acne.

6. Try to drink more green tea. Green tea has anti bacterial properties and it can help kill off the bacteria that causes acne.

These 6 steps are easy to implement, affordable and also effective. Your skin treatment for acne need not necessary be medications or creams, maybe all you need is to use some natural ways such that the 6 steps mentioned above. There are lots of ways to cure acne naturally but it will be overwhelming to try them all out. Just find a few ways that you feel that is effective and stick to it.

Cell phone radiation

2009-12-30T10:00:00.000+07:00

Cell phone radiation protection is a huge concern among doctors and scientists worldwide with 208 million cell phone users in the United States alone and the fear of a health crisis epidemic is very real. Experts predict 500,000 new cases of brain and eye cancer each year by 2010 as an effect of cell phone use which is staggering in comparison with the less than half figure of years past. If these figures are true then the financial and healthcare strain would be immense.
Cell phones are linked to headaches, high blood pressure, brain tumors, cancer, Alzheimer’s, and much, much more. Although these diseases can take years to develop into life threatening and ending conditions. It is currently believed that future studies will confirm these estimates so pre-measures can protect you from being a future statistic.
Here are some easy to follow cell phone radiation protection measures to keep you safe and radiation free from cell phones.

Limit your cell phone use to only necessary calls and keeping calls concise will eliminate extended exposure to radiation. Children should only use cell phones in emergencies since developing skulls are more affected by radiation. A wire headset will minimize exposure to a fraction of what is usually taken in. Remember that men who keep their cell phone turned on in their front pocket can reduce their sperm count by thirty percent. If using a phone without a headset keep the phone away from your ear until the call is connected. Do not use your cell phone in a metal enclosure because it focuses radiation on your body. Purchase a low radiation cell phone. Take nutritional supplements that help raise the bodies’ immunity to radiation.
This list is nit complete and there are many other options and information out there so stay informed and abreast of new developments in this area. These steps will prove effective in keeping radiation away from your body but only you can take these measures. Keep proactive and your cell phone radiation will stay low. This is a guide to help keep your family safe using cell phone radiation protection.

Fujitsu LifeBook T2020

2009-12-29T09:46:00.000+07:00

Fujitsu Lifebook T2020 is a tablet PC, designed for business users like most of other tablet PCs. Launched in 2009 only, this tablet PC offers maximum functionality with hosts of features. As it lacks sex appeal but at the same time it is designed for serious business users who like more of its sober and professional look. The main focus of its design is on its functionality instead of looks. It is quite lightweight at 3.6 pounds and quite sleek too at 11.7 by 8.6 x 1.3 inches. High speed is not its virtue which is compensates with its ability to work longer.

It resembles its processor Lifebook T2010 in its serious looks. It features flawless 12.1” screen with resolution 1280 by 800 pixels. The screen delivers graphics, text and photos of exceptional quality. It displays brighter and much vibrant colors.

This tablet comes with stylus which makes it easy to write in various applications like Microsoft word and Google Gmail. T2020 comes with transcription application which can recognize sloppy handwriting also once it captures your style of writing. You can keep this stylus safe in the given groove on the side of this laptop.

If you do not want to use touchscreen, just rotate the screen and you will get a full sized keyboard. The keyboard is all like other ordinary laptop keyboards having a small and soft touchpoint in the centre.

LifeBook T2020 is quite reasonable on its performance front. It comes with Windows Vista, 2GB of RAM and 1.4GHz processor. Its speed is not that impressive as expected but at the same time, it comes with a strong battery. It can run more than 7 hours once fully charged. You can complete most of your jobs with its durable battery.

This laptop features tablet-PC intensive software such as Pen Flicks Training and Handwriting Personalization app. Pen Flicks Training trains the user to increase their efficiency using stylus. The other application is designed for more accurate transcribing. Though not a multimedia machine but it does have a small in-built audio with one speaker located on front of the keyboard.

This Laptop features two USB ports to attach external devices. One of them is located on the right side of the laptop and other is on the back of it. Other features of this LifeBook include FireWire port, 802.11n for Wi-Fi connectivity, a PC Card slot, and a flash card slot good for Memory Stick and SD Cards.

The Fujitsu LifeBook T2020 is excellent device with a blend of computing basics, sound tablet PC features and strong battery life.

LifeBook T2020 is quite reasonable on its performance front. It comes with Windows Vista, 2GB of RAM and 1.4GHz processor. Its speed is not that impressive as expected but at the same time, it comes with a strong battery. It can run more than 7 hours once fully charged. You can complete most of your jobs with its durable battery.

This laptop features tablet-PC intensive software such as Pen Flicks Training and Handwriting Personalization app. Pen Flicks Training trains the user to increase their efficiency using stylus. The other application is designed for more accurate transcribing. Though not a multimedia machine but it does have a small in-built audio with one speaker located on front of the keyboard.

This Laptop features two USB ports to attach external devices. One of them is located on the right side of the laptop and other is on the back of it. Other features of this LifeBook include FireWire port, 802.11n for Wi-Fi connectivity, a PC Card slot, and a flash card slot good for Memory Stick and SD Cards.

The Fujitsu LifeBook T2020 is excellent device with a blend of computing basics, sound tablet PC features and strong battery life.

Reebok i-Run Review

2009-12-27T19:52:00.000+07:00

The Reebok i-Run is a highly popular treadmill introduced to the market by Reebok, who are commonly known for their athletic apparel and footwear (as a subsidiary of Adidas) as opposed to fitness equipment. Part of the Reebok i-series range, the treadmill was dubbed 'smart and easy' by Reebok itself. Having tried and tested the i-Run, we were left with no choice but to agree with Reebok.

Smart this treadmill most certainly is. With a sleek design than is targeted to blend into the contemporary home, the i-Run looks great to the eye. It is also extremely compact, which again makes it ideal for the modern user. The Reebok i-Run really does have a clean look. It is also available in five different colors, including, white, black, orange, blue, and pink.

If you want evidence why 'easy' is a good adjective, then just try assembling this product. Most of the hard work is done already for you, and all you just have to do is screw the feet of the treadmill on! The i-Run is a folding treadmill which provides even more convenience. It is easy to use and operate. Nothing complicated, just as simple as most of us want it to be.

Although the Reebok i-Run is targeting the lower-end of the market in terms of pricing, this should not be a sign that it performs like other similarly priced treadmills. Quite the opposite. The i-Run has many features that your standard expensive treadmill will include. It is by all standards a powerful performer for the average user which it is targeting. A solid 1.75 HP motor will do more than an adequate job. It also has a max speed of 14km/h (8.7mph) which will cater for novices as well as experienced fitness enthusiasts. With two incline levels and 6 pre-set programmes, the i-Run is well equipped to deliver. There is a large LCD screen which will display all the vital statistics, including, distance covered, time and calories burned. You will find that although the i-Run is very well priced, Reebok have not compromised on quality.

And not compromising is what the Reebok i-Run does extremely well. Here you have a machine which is available at a bargain price, but does not compromise on performance, ease of use or design. Reebok really have struck the balance well. This is simply a fantastic value for money treadmill, and is highly recommended.

Latest Computer Processor

2009-12-24T19:51:00.000+07:00

The newest computer processors
provides high speed processing, high performance, multitasking and the efforts of a sharp increase in productivity. Get the most out of it with a new computer. Today’s desktops and laptops
propose a high performance, quality and reliability than ever before. These computers have 2X faster performance, fewer lines, sleek design and keep you productive, entertained and informed. New technology provides the performance needed in the design you want. Let’s look at the next generation of processors.

Intel ® Dual-Core processor

Intel launches new computer processors, which are Dual-CPU. Dual-processor to enable exceptional productivity enhancing features and rich multimedia experience. There was only one execution core processor is normal, but a dual core processor has two complete execution cores in one physical processor, so you can do more at once than ever with a dual core

processor. A dual core processor consists of two separate cores, each core handles incoming data strings simultaneously to improve efficiency, and each core has its own cache. In the single core processors or traditional lines of instruction must be order, and then selectively enforce its store in the cache for quick recovery. If the data cache is necessary, it will be received through the system bus to system memory (RAM) or storage devices. Accessing these slows down performance to the maximum bus speed, memory and storage devices will allow, which is much slower than the speed of the processor. The situation is compounded when several tasks. In this case, the processor must switch back and forth between two or more sets of data streams and programs. CPU resources are useless, and productivity suffers.

Intel ® Core ™ 2 Duo processor

Intel Core 2 Duo processors to deliver increased productivity, energy efficiency and more responsive multitasking. In the Intel ® Core ™ 2 processors to reduce energy costs by an average of 50 percent. He uses technology (Intel a unique 45-nanometer technology) offer excellent performance, as well as exclusive energy-saving features to reduce energy consumption on the desktop PC.
Getting the best overall performance: Intel ® Core ™ 2 Duo processor from Intel built a unique 45-nanometer technology, which provides excellent performance and energy-saving features. It is up to 6MB total cache level 2 and up to 1333 MHz front of the bus. Now 3X faster multitasking performance: Intel ® Core ™ 2 Duo processor has two independent processor cores in one package, which allows multi-processing 3X faster multitasking work. The processor operates on the same frequency and share up to 6MB of cache memory and 2 levels up to 1333 MHz Front Side Bus for truly parallel computing world. When we give a few instructions on the computer’s processor, it takes one after another, but in the case of the Intel ® Core ™ 2 Duo processor, it will take the instructions at the same time more instructions per clock cycle allowed for the Intel ® Wide Dynamic performance that will improve the execution time and energy . Intelligent Power Capability, Smart Memory Access, Advanced Smart Cache will provide you with more energy efficient work, optimizing the use of the available data bandwidth and efficient cache subsystem for many and dual core processor.

Intel ® Quad-Core Processor

Quad-core processor is built with four separate cores. It’s like a four hard-working brains are in a choir or independently perform major tasks quickly and efficiently. She is very intelligent, a result of tremendous energy. Today, the computational requirements of high productivity, which can be achieved in four performance quad-core processor technology. It provides multitasking and multimedia applications on your desktop, notebook and workstation. The processor speed of 2.83 GHz, 12 MB cache and 2-level 1333 MHz front side bus, making it more efficient and expeditious untouchable. Consisting of four complete execution cores within a single powerful processor Quad-core technology is working with performance-infused accuracy that allows to overcome these new multi-game, enjoy the eye catching multimedia multitasking, and more realism that only the four major

Best gadgets of 2009

2009-12-22T19:45:00.000+07:00

Technological advancements always fascinate consumers. Some of the best gadgets were introduced in the market in 2009 and really altered the meaning of innovative and intelligent devices.

Apple iPod nano 8GB, 5th Generation

Coming with a super music player, advanced video and photo viewer, vibrant video camera, Fm tuner, voice recorder, and pedometer, the iPod nano 8G is a dream come true. Featuring an mp3 player, a photo album and a video camera in one device, the Apple iPod nano weighs only 1.28 ounces and can fit in the palm of one hand as its tiny size is great (3.6 x 1.5 x 0.24 inches), but never feels losable.

Its wide 2.2-inch screen is crystal clear allowing for high composition when shooting with the in-built camera. Although it cannot offer a widescreen experience, the camera has 16 built-in special effects allowing users to shoot solid videos at 30 frames per second with 640 x 480 resolution. Picture quality is great, although when the shot is in quick motion, the video may look a bit harsh.

Although apple has long resisted including an FM tuner in the iPods, in the iPod nano 8GB has included a tuner that takes the FM experience to the next level. Using the headphones as an antenna, users can set favorite stations, tag songs they like to look up and save live radio broadcasts to the iPod’s memory for enjoying them later.

The iPod nano 8G can store up to 4,000 songs, which can unstoppably play for 24 hours. This magnificent gadget adds even more features that include a speaker for playing music and other audio, a pedometer so that users can upload exercise data to the Nike + website, Voice Over accessibility kit; and Genius Mixes

The iPod nano 8G comes in many colors and is, admittedly, a quality upgrade of the previous model. Particularly, the video camera and FM tuner are its groundbreaking features that put iPod nano 8G on the top of the integrated media device roster. All in all, Apple iPod nano 8GB, 5th Generation is plain on the outside, but pretty sophisticated on the inside and this comes at the starting price of $139.99.

(http://reviews.cnet.com/mp3-players/apple-ipod-nano-fifth/4507-6490_7-33770785.html?tag=rnav).

Nokia 5800 XpressMusic

Nokia 5800 XpressMusic is an attractive device that, although it doesn’t have the elegance of iPhone’s interface, it performs greatly and it’s easy to handle setup. Being Nokia’s first mainstream touch control device, the phone features a variety of applications making a really attractive music majoring proposition.

Weighing just 109g and measuring 111 x 51.7 x 15.5 mm, the Nokia 5800 XpressMusic features a smartphone that bears the distinct look and feel of Nokia. Its 3.2-inch, 16-million color 640×360 pixels display offers the user space to use the new Nokia touch user interface, while a small stylus is also offered into the back panel for a more precise tapping option. Nokia also offers a plectrum on a wriststrap.

The Nokia 5800 XpressMusic features a built-in 3.2-megapixel camera with Carl Zeiss optics, an autofocus system, LED flash, and a new touch-based user interface. Shooting quality is great and Nokia has also included a variety of online-based features allowing users to share stills and video content, and a spread of online links to services such as Facebook, and a full web browser.

The phone features a S60 music player with a fine interface and 8GB in-box MicroSD storage supplements that come extra to the 81MB onboard storage. Sound quality is great and the device is capable of producing an exceptional audio performance, with clear and deep sound and hefty bass thanks to the 3.5mm headphone socket on the top of the phone.

The Nokia 5800 XpressMusic features more applications including A-GPS location finding and mapping technology; instant messaging and email; Wi-Fi support plus HSDPA high-speed 3G mobile data connectivity allowing users to render quickly on pages, zoom in and out on pages and swipe around; and a host of smartphone multimedia gadgetry.

Overall, the Nokia 5800 XpressMusic is a powerful phone with unique functionality that can deliver up to 400 hours on standby in 3G coverage when fully charged, while average talktime is up to 5 hours on 3G or 8.8 hours on GSM networks.

Starting price for the Nokia 5800 XpressMusic is at $269.99

http://www.amazon.com/Nokia-XpressMusic-Unlocked-Card-U-S-Warranty/dp/B001SEAOC6

Sony Vaio P Series Lifestyle PC

Sony Vaio P series Lifestyle PC introduces an inimitable combination of style, mobility and connectivity. Featuring a groundbreaking design that matches the dimensions of a mobile phone and weighing just 1.4 pounds, this innovative notebook is so thin that can fit into the pocket of a jacket or a handbag. Besides, it is so practical, advanced and user friendly, that it, admittedly, introduces the new era of notebooks.

The Vaio P series can simultaneously deliver entertainment and computing due to its pioneering features. Introducing high resolution 1600 x 768, Sony’s XBRITE-ECO LCD technology that replicates high quality images and LED backlit 8-inch ultra-wide diagonal display, the Vaio P series Lifestyle PC becomes a tool that extends beyond a typical notebook.

Some of the great features of the P series include a larger keyboard area, GPS navigation, Bluetooth, integrated wireless WAN 3G Mobile Broadband and Wi-Fi. Besides the notebook has an instant mode option that gives direct access to files and to Sony’s Xross Media bar interface for quick boot up and a built-in webcam. Sony Vaio P series Lifestyle PC comes with Windows Vista operating system and is available in exceptional colors like classic black, emerald green, crystal white, garnet red, and onyx black.

Starting price for the Sony Vaio P series Lifestyle PC is at $849.99 (www.sonystyle.com)

HP dx9000 TouchSmart Business PC

Featuring a strong Intel Core2 Duo P8400 processor, a 320 GB high-speed hard drive and a Virtual LAN (VLAN) driver, HP dx9000 TouchSmart business PC is much more than a PC. It is practically an all-in-one touch enabled desktop that addresses the advanced needs of business users through the use of innovative, interactive technology.

Coming with a Hi-Fi diagonal widescreen HP BrightView LCD display and Windows Vista Business operating system at 64-bit, HP dx9000 TouchSmart business PC allows users to use video conference options, enable e-mail and internet connection and manage their calendar, contacts, images and photos without using its wireless keyboard and mouse. Besides, the desktop carries a built-in camera and microphone, an integrated SuperMulti DVD drive, premium stereo speakers and built-in five-in-one Media Card Reader.

Starting price for the HP dx9000 TouchSmart Business PC is at $1,399 (www.hp.com)

Palm Pre Web OS smartphone

Being widely viewed as the iPhone’s rival, Palm Pre has captivated consumers as soon as it debuted in the market. Featuring a groundbreaking technology based on Palm’s new platform, Palm Pre web OS smartphone stands out primarily for its Web OS that allows users to enjoy a unique web-connected experience. The new OS is extremely user-friendly, integrated in a great design that gives users a unique feeling when touching the interface, while the phone’s look is advanced featuring fluid animations on its 3.1- inch touch screen features a 24-bit color 320×480 resolution HVGA display.

Weighing only 135 grams and having a thickness of 0.67 inches with rounded corners, the new OS comes in a totally comfortable size and weight that makes it fit in hands and pockets. However, in spite of its size, Palm Pre integrates great technology. Featuring a 3-megapixel digital camera with LED flash and extended depth of field, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi 802.11b/g with WPA and 8GB memory, Palm Pre is a phone that can offer everything to the user.

Besides, Palm Pre allows synchronization with Facebook and Google contacts and features iTune capability that makes it function like an iPod when synched to iTunes. Users can transfer music and videos rather easily although some files are not supported by Pre.

Sony Vaio X, A New Notebook Series

2009-12-20T19:22:00.002+07:00

Its chassis is crafted out of carbon fiber and is designed to not only be incredibly light but also sturdy enough to withstand 150kg of force.

Like other Sony notebooks, the keyboard on the VAIO X is island-style, but at 88 percent of full size, it’s a bit smaller than most netbooks with 10- to 12-inch screens. Measuring 9.5 x 3.5 inches, the keyboard is about half an inch smaller in both directions than the Toshiba mini NB205, even though the VAIO X has a larger keyboard deck. This is because there’s about half an inch of space on either side of the keyboard.

The display itself again split opinion, though. It has a notable red bias, which affects skin tones, and its horizontal and vertical viewing angles are a little limited. You could also argue that its 1,366 x 768 resolution is too high for an 11.1in screen, although if you’re finding it a struggle to read system text you can enlarge it easily via Windows 7. In terms of features, the X-Series includes pretty much everything you could ask for. There’s Bluetooth, 802.11bgn WLAN, an integrated 3G modem that supports up to 7.2Mbits/sec, and a 0.3-megapixel camera.

With a single core Atom processor
, the Vaio X Series was never going to be a great performer. Even though the 2GHz Z550 chip supports hyper-threading, this is no substitute for the performance of the dual core processors used in most other laptops, and the Vaio felt a little sluggish at times. Our review unit was rated at just 2.5 under the Windows Experience Index built into Windows, but this score was held back by the low performance of the Intel GMA 500 graphics function in the chipset, while the memory and disk scores were quite respectable. However, like netbooks (which also use Atom processors) the Vaio has ample performance for productivity tasks such as word processing, email and delivering presentations.

Performance was also possibly affected by the presence of various pre-installed applications, such as 60-day trial versions of Norton Online Backup and McAfee Security Center, which run every time the computer starts regardless of whether you accept the 60-day trial conditions or not.

The netbook’s 128GB Samsung SSD booted to Windows 7 Home Premium in 50 seconds (while the average is 55 seconds), and was able to copy a 4.97GB folder of mixed media files at a rate of 27.2 MBps—close to twice the netbook average of 15.2 MBps. When converting a 114MB MPEG-4 to AVI using HandBrake, the VAIO X took 26 minutes and 45 seconds; that’s just under 3 minutes faster than the netbook average, but the average ultraportable laptop takes 14:06. The Acer Aspire Timeline 1810T, for example, took 11:24.

Despite its low weight, the X Series still provides a decent range of connectivity options, consisting of 802.11b/g/Draft n Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and a built-in Everywair HSDPA modem for wireless broadband, enabling buyers to stay connected virtually anywhere. It also has two USB ports, VGA output, Ethernet connector, headphone jack socket and two slots along its front edge for SD Card and Sony’s own Memory Stick Pro Duo Flash storage cards. As a measure of just how thin the Vaio X series is, a hinged cover forms one half of the Ethernet connector, because the laptop’s chassis is too thin to accommodate a standard size Ethernet jack.

The laptop’s 11.1 inch screen and 6.5 hours of battery life is also respectable. Snap on an optional larger battery and your battery life jumps to 14 hours. This is of course also thanks to the Windows 7 OS and solid state hard disk under the hood which is optimized to greatly improve battery life compared to past laptops.

Sony’s Vaio X Series is incredibly thin and light and, with a better battery life than we expected, seems an ideal machine for those who need to carry a laptop around with them. However, this model is pricey even by Sony Vaio standards, and buyers would be advised to treat it with care as we have doubts about the system’s robustness.

Best gadgets of 2009

2009-12-20T19:12:00.000+07:00

Nokia 5800 XpressMusic is an attractive device that, although it doesn’t have the elegance of iPhone’s interface, it performs greatly and it’s easy to handle setup. Being Nokia’s first mainstream touch control device, the phone features a variety of applications making a really attractive music majoring proposition.

Weighing just 109g and measuring 111 x 51.7 x 15.5 mm, the Nokia 5800 XpressMusic features a smartphone that bears the distinct look and feel of Nokia. Its 3.2-inch, 16-million color 640×360 pixels display offers the user space to use the new Nokia touch user interface, while a small stylus is also offered into the back panel for a more precise tapping option. Nokia also offers a plectrum on a wriststrap.

The Nokia 5800 XpressMusic features a built-in 3.2-megapixel camera with Carl Zeiss optics, an autofocus system, LED flash, and a new touch-based user interface. Shooting quality is great and Nokia has also included a variety of online-based features allowing users to share stills and video content, and a spread of online links to services such as Facebook, and a full web browser.

The phone features a S60 music player with a fine interface and 8GB in-box MicroSD storage supplements that come extra to the 81MB onboard storage. Sound quality is great and the device is capable of producing an exceptional audio performance, with clear and deep sound and hefty bass thanks to the 3.5mm headphone socket on the top of the phone.

The Nokia 5800 XpressMusic features more applications including A-GPS location finding and mapping technology; instant messaging and email; Wi-Fi support plus HSDPA high-speed 3G mobile data connectivity allowing users to render quickly on pages, zoom in and out on pages and swipe around; and a host of smartphone multimedia gadgetry.

Overall, the Nokia 5800 XpressMusic is a powerful phone with unique functionality that can deliver up to 400 hours on standby in 3G coverage when fully charged, while average talktime is up to 5 hours on 3G or 8.8 hours on GSM networks.

Starting price for the Nokia 5800 XpressMusic is at $269.99

http://www.amazon.com/Nokia-XpressMusic-Unlocked-Card-U-S-Warranty/dp/B001SEAOC6

Sony Vaio P Series Lifestyle PC

Sony Vaio P series Lifestyle PC introduces an inimitable combination of style, mobility and connectivity. Featuring a groundbreaking design that matches the dimensions of a mobile phone and weighing just 1.4 pounds, this innovative notebook is so thin that can fit into the pocket of a jacket or a handbag. Besides, it is so practical, advanced and user friendly, that it, admittedly, introduces the new era of notebooks.

The Vaio P series can simultaneously deliver entertainment and computing due to its pioneering features. Introducing high resolution 1600 x 768, Sony’s XBRITE-ECO LCD technology that replicates high quality images and LED backlit 8-inch ultra-wide diagonal display, the Vaio P series Lifestyle PC becomes a tool that extends beyond a typical notebook.

Some of the great features of the P series include a larger keyboard area, GPS navigation, Bluetooth, integrated wireless WAN 3G Mobile Broadband and Wi-Fi. Besides the notebook has an instant mode option that gives direct access to files and to Sony’s Xross Media bar interface for quick boot up and a built-in webcam. Sony Vaio P series Lifestyle PC comes with Windows Vista operating system and is available in exceptional colors like classic black, emerald green, crystal white, garnet red, and onyx black.

Starting price for the Sony Vaio P series Lifestyle PC is at $849.99 (www.sonystyle.com)

HP dx9000 TouchSmart Business PC

Featuring a strong Intel Core2 Duo P8400 processor, a 320 GB high-speed hard drive and a Virtual LAN (VLAN) driver, HP dx9000 TouchSmart business PC is much more than a PC. It is practically an all-in-one touch enabled desktop that addresses the advanced needs of business users through the use of innovative, interactive technology.

Coming with a Hi-Fi diagonal widescreen HP BrightView LCD display and Windows Vista Business operating system at 64-bit, HP dx9000 TouchSmart business PC allows users to use video conference options, enable e-mail and internet connection and manage their calendar, contacts, images and photos without using its wireless keyboard and mouse. Besides, the desktop carries a built-in camera and microphone, an integrated SuperMulti DVD drive, premium stereo speakers and built-in five-in-one Media Card Reader.

Starting price for the HP dx9000 TouchSmart Business PC is at $1,399 (www.hp.com)

Palm Pre Web OS smartphone

Being widely viewed as the iPhone’s rival, Palm Pre has captivated consumers as soon as it debuted in the market. Featuring a groundbreaking technology based on Palm’s new platform, Palm Pre web OS smartphone stands out primarily for its Web OS that allows users to enjoy a unique web-connected experience. The new OS is extremely user-friendly, integrated in a great design that gives users a unique feeling when touching the interface, while the phone’s look is advanced featuring fluid animations on its 3.1- inch touch screen features a 24-bit color 320×480 resolution HVGA display.

Weighing only 135 grams and having a thickness of 0.67 inches with rounded corners, the new OS comes in a totally comfortable size and weight that makes it fit in hands and pockets. However, in spite of its size, Palm Pre integrates great technology. Featuring a 3-megapixel digital camera with LED flash and extended depth of field, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi 802.11b/g with WPA and 8GB memory, Palm Pre is a phone that can offer everything to the user.

Besides, Palm Pre allows synchronization with Facebook and Google contacts and features iTune capability that makes it function like an iPod when synched to iTunes. Users can transfer music and videos rather easily although some files are not supported by Pre.

PlayStation 3 Games: Top Releases

2009-12-07T18:58:00.001+07:00

The PlayStation 3 came into existence at first in North America. Let me tell you that there were fourteen titles. The other three were released in the end of the year 2006. You would feel very excited that only after one week it was declared as a hit. All the children rushed to the shop and tried the get one copy for themselves. They were so mad about the game that there was hardly any space left in all the shops. Some titles were released in the year 2007 as well.

Hence it is rather clear that this game was a hit. Now I would like to write about some of the most recent releases in this series. They are as follows:

1. Wipeout HD
This is the eighth title in the wipeout racing video game series. It was developed by the Sony Liverpool. They did it for the PlayStation 3 console. You can purchase it from any PlayStation store. This is the sophisticated version of wipeout pure and wipeout pulse. It was released in September 2008. But the release was only confined to the European and the US territories. A month later it was released in Japan.

2. Witches
Let me tell you that this is an imminent third person combat game which was developed by Revistronic. You can depict this game as taking place in a wholly dark medieval setting and the player has to fight with the hordes of the demons. This game is yet to release but you can certainly feel that the release of this game will certainly be exhilarating. There are three female characters which are the Tempest, shadow and the fire. The teaser site has already been released on February 25th 2008 and it was also considered to be the hit.

3. WSC Real 09: World Championship Snooker
This might be a spectacular release. That is why I have written it here. You should positively keep it in mind. You should make sure that you have one copy as soon as it is being released.

4. WWE Smack Down vs. Raw 2010
It is a proficient wrestling video game which has been urbanized by Yuke's and then published by THQ for the PlayStation 3. It is the eleventh as well as the current video game as far as the WWE Smack Down vs. Raw 2009 series is concerned. This game deals with the specialized wrestling promotion.

Hence these are some of the games which were being released under this series. It is quite great and you will certainly find them to be a great thing to pass free time.

The Best Anti Aging Skin Treatment Revealed

2009-12-01T19:04:00.000+07:00

What if I told you its actually possible to turn back the clock for your skin and make it healthy, young and beautiful again? This is possible by using the right anti aging skin treatment at the right time. Let’s find out how.

To keep your skin youthful and firm, you do not have to opt for harmful anti aging skin treatments like Botox or Collagen injections.

Botox involves injecting this toxin into your facial muscles. This effectively paralyzes them for some time and gives your face a relaxed appearance. The wrinkles seem to be a bit diminished as a result.

The problem is – the effects of the injection begin to wear out after a few months. You then have to undergo the treatment again and again indefinitely. Not only does this become real expensive real quick, but also causes side effects like muscle weakness and bruising.

Collagen injections are slightly better than Botox. This treatment involves injecting the Collagen directly into the skin. The Collagen injected is a synthetic version of the natural protein our body produces. The two do not integrate completely, and so the effects of the injection are short lived. It can also cause side effects like hyper tension and allergic reactions.

A very simple yet highly effective alternative to these harmful treatments is to use natural anti aging skin creams that encourage your body to produce more of Collagen and Elastin internally.

Natural substances like Manuka Honey can do this effectively. This honey stimulates the Collagen and Elastin production in the body significantly. Increased quantities of these proteins help in making the skin firm, elastic and wrinkle free. The best part is – since the proteins are produced inside the body itself, there are no chances of any kind of allergic reaction or any other side effect.

Cynergy TK™ is a natural extract derived from the wool of New Zealand sheep. It also enhances the production of Collagen and Elastin in the body and helps in making the skin youthful again. It also acts as a wonderful moisturizer and keeps the skin soft and supple.

CoQ10 or Nanobelle CoenzymeQ10 is a powerful anti oxidant. It prevents the skin from the damage caused by free radicals and is a strong anti aging ingredient.

So there you have it. The best anti aging skin treatment that not only is safe from side effects, but is also easy on the pocket. Go ahead and visit my website to find out about a natural skin care line that can give you back a fresh, youthful skin.

Sony Ericsson Smartphones

2009-11-30T19:10:00.000+07:00

Smartphones have changed the way one perceives a normal mobile phone. The majority of these new breeds of devices based on Symbian operating system, allowing you to put useful, fun and powerful features and tools. Thus, you can get much more from your smartphone, download the application to a single business or leisure.

Advertised as much and connectivity tools, Sony Ericsson P990i, apparently loaded with the latest features Premium. The phone is in the house with video and other features such as 3G mobile broadband Internet connection. In the absence of networks of 3G, you can retreat to the traditional methods of data connection - GPRS Class 10.

In the end, Sony Ericsson P990i is a 3G business solutions. This smartphone is not among the most subtle reading of the size 114 x 57 x 26 mm. The device weighs 150 grams reliable, thus giving the impression of durability. The first thing you notice in the Sony Ericsson P990i is its rich based TFT touch screen.

The first thing you notice in the Sony Ericsson P990i is its rich based TFT touch screen. Phone has Smart Flip which are the number keys. But when you open it, a full set of QWERTY keyboard is under it. The device boasts handwriting recognition, so that you can instantly Scribble minutes for Sony Ericsson P990i, as that your notebook.

Realizing the success of this new form of communication, Sony Ericsson has released further models, even with the advent of new features and technologies. Next was a display model Sony Ericsson P900, followed by the P910 and the recently P990i.

More specifically, it will be the first mobile phone to use the new Window Mobile 6.1 Professional operating system, which already gives him an advantage over their competitors who are using version 6, even though Windows Mobile 6.1 was not even officially announced yet, so that the differences suggests a new version over the old remains to be seen.

Sony Ericsson is the 4 th largest producer of mobile phones in the world and second largest in the UK. This distinction is important to do, and I’ll come back to it later. But now, suffice it to say, this is one of the big boys, with one of the most recognizable names directly into the mobile world.

In short, if I had to describe the Sony Ericsson P1, it would be: Sweet! Based on all the interface Symbian UIQ3, with a full touchscreen and QWERTY keyboard, it is clear that this phone is designed to be more than just a phone. The best way to think about it will be like a computer in your hand.

Perhaps the most successful Sony Ericsson Mobile phone line up is the series of Walkman. In an era when mobile users continues to meddle in polyphonic or MP3-ringtones, Sony Ericsson invented the phone Walkman - Evolved to the complete line of music mobile phone. Walkman created a rage especially among young mobile phone users who refuse to go down even today. Using the brand reputation Walkman, Sony Ericsson is now virtually ruling mobile music scene.

PHP Development: Turn Your Website into Multi-Featured Web Application

2009-11-29T19:18:00.000+07:00

Are you looking for developing a web application with charming features which have a range integrated database? PHP is one of the best technologies for web applications integrated with database. PHP is an open source, secure and popular web development framework, which has taken the web application development methodology to the new heights. PHP is a fully blown infrastructure, environment or framework for developing any type of web applications in real time. PHP is a very popular because it is proving to be a serious threat to the monopoly of .Net and Java in the other field of application development. PHP can be a hard nut to crack when it comes to search engine optimization. PHP developers encounter a lot of technical issues while creating PHP scripts based on SEO guidelines. The web pages needed to be constantly, and manually, modified. The web development industry was lacking such web sites that were dynamic and would update automatically. The Born of PHP as a web application development language ended up this issue and the era of dynamic (or auto updating sites) has risen since the acceptance of PHP as a web application development language. Unlike ASP / ASP.Net and JAVA, PHP doesn’t require any specified framework to build a web application.

PHP based web applications can be developed using any IDE on any platform with any local host installed. This means that unlike .net framework for asp applications and JVM for java based applications PHP doesn’t require any strict or specified framework or environment and this is one of the best benefits of PHP. Which are the Features of PHP Development? • PHP drastically reduces the amount of code required to build large applications. • Your applications are safe and secured. • PHP better performance • Easy to perform common tasks • PHP you to choose the language that best applies to your application PHP open source language has been successful in building robust, secure and scalable applications at low costs and in a faster turnaround time. PHP is a web application development / programming language that helps both the web-developers and web-owners. • PHP is an open-source, easy-to-understand and less complex language which doesn’t require lengthy and complex coding structure to build a web based application. Hence developers can develop applications easily and with less usage of time i.e. in faster turnaround time. • Since it is an open-source language, the web applications developed using PHP costs lesser than developed in its counterparts. Thus website-owners can save a lot money and though they can have a lot….a multi-featured web based application.

Psychological and Social Support Crucial for Cancer Patients

2009-11-20T19:03:00.000+07:00

Cancer is a devastating disease that it takes intense victims not only on physical health of the patient, but emotionally and socially. This may lead to other health problems during and after treatment or even during recovery from cancer. Cancer is an aggressive disease and treatment as aggressive. Radiation and chemotherapy are physically debilitating and seriously affect the mental condition of the patient.

If the treatment is carried out without taking into account the emotional impact, or even physical consequences, the suffering of patients would unduly expand and their determination and motivation to follow the treatment will also be affected. Sometimes, the focus seems only to remove tumors, but now reports from leading medical institutions suggest that cancer therapy should be introduced with the new guidelines for cancer care.

New standards proposed plan to achieve three objectives: to identify if a patient is distressed and otherwise unhealthy, helping patients to treat these secondary issues, and periodically evaluate the patient standard care and be flexible enough to accommodate new changes. This may lead to the best way of administering a sympathetic treatment of cancer, not only with the specific intent to kill cancer cells only turn a blind eye to everything else.

It is recognized that existing methods of cancer treatment for some very severe side effects. And if the adverse effects of therapy itself will weaken the benefits of treatment, the patient finally ending the suffering, not only through illness, but also during treatment and during the recovery phase, even after treatment stops. Although some of the resources that already exist to help patients through painful and exhausting phase of treatment, cancer care providers can not provide sufficient attention to identifying the individual needs of patients and helping them use these resources.

Some of the common needs of patients include access to information about cancer and treatment for depression and other mental health conditions that are natural, but the side effects of going through such a devastating experience, such as cancer.

During treatment, the patient may also need help performing daily activities. They must also be provided with easy access to transportation, medicines and other items that they either can not afford or do not have access.

This is not only cancer but other serious debilitating disease also causes a huge strain on all aspects of human life. New standards of treatment of patients needed to address this particular area, to improve the quality of services provided to patients.

Facebook Mafia Wars Cheats - Learn The Best Mafia Wars Cheats

2009-11-17T18:57:00.001+07:00

Many users of social networking sites like facebook, myspace, or tagged are using online web browser games like Mafia wars to keep in touch with their chums and family around the globe. This game has managed to take off on facebook and now has millions of members playing it. Just like other popular web hosted games many will search the internet for facebook mafia wars cheats and other tips to advance faster through the game and beat their opponents.

Most will folks to dedicated fan sites of mafia wars or the tons of forums tha contain to search for tips and methods that might give them an ‘edge’ over their buddies but you will find that the majority of these tips are outmoded or tactics employed by noobs that never truly work at all.

What you really need is proven systems and tactics from professionals and top flight players on Mafia wars. These game-players know all the facebook mafia wars cheats and tactics that help them get in front of the pack and enable them to start dominating all that try and oppose them.

So where do you find this information?

what you want to go searching for is Mafia wars guides that contain tons of step-by-step strategies to growing your mob, accumulating godfather points quickly, becoming rich fast.

These help guides will show you the best systems of building wealth quickly, what sort of properties to buy, the best techniques to completing jobs faster, and how to best use godfather points to complete more hits for money.

you may also learn mafia war cheats on how to grow your mob in hours with systems which will automate the recruitment process to growing your mob. If you don’t want to spend lot of time emailing and sending requests to folks to join up then this facebook mafia wars cheats is a must!

The people that own these guides have managed to signup over 500 folk to join crew on their first day of playing mafia wars!

I know players that have managed to amass millions of dolllars within days of starting simply but applying strategies the high class players are using to reign over mafia wars.

if you don’t enjoy spending days making an attempt to grow your mob or play aimlessly not knowing what you are actually doing then you need to download one of these help guides to give you the interior running on how to rule mafia wars.

Norton 360 Version 3.0 All-In-One-Security

2009-10-27T19:19:00.000+07:00

The Internet is a place where people communicate at a very cheap price. It is where people now do their shopping, do business and trade in the financial market. This is why the Internet is considered as one of the most important tools in the new millennium.

Because of this, all your personal and financial information are stored in your computer, and also in your emails. If you do business in the Internet, important files will also be stored in your computer.

This is why you should take all the necessary steps in preventing this stranger to have access to your computer in order to prevent them from stealing from you. Today, there are available software programs that enable you to protect yourself from malicious programs, such as viruses, spywares, and adwares

One such program is developed by Norton. Norton is a company that specializes in computer security and is one of the most popular and most reputable companies in the world in terms of computer security. They provide one of the best quality software programs to protect you from these malicious software programs.

One of the latest developments of Norton Security by Symantec Corp. is the Norton 360. This particular program is still in development and is now available in Beta version. The reviews for this new kind of Internet security program prove to be promising and are considered as the new generation in online security.

Norton 360 offers:

* Antivirus

* Antispyware

* Antiphishing

* Online identity protection

* Web site authentication

* Two Way Firewall

* 2GB secure online storage

Top 10 tips for Wireless Home Security

2009-10-21T19:07:00.001+07:00

A wireless home network brings many benefits - all the family can access the Internet simultaneously, you can use your laptop anywhere within the radius of a wireless network, freeing you from physical limitations, you do not have to string Cat-5 cable throughout your house (without holes in the wall, either!) - but also Wi-Fi network also brings its own set of security problems. The following recommendations provide a list of actions to be taken to improve your Wi-Fi network security.

1. Place the access point to the center position

Wi-Fi signals radiate from the router or access point, so that the access device positioned as centrally as possible to reach two goals. First, it provides Wi-Fi signal would reach all the areas in your home, and secondly, it will minimize the amount of signal leakage for their property. This is important to minimize the chance of drive-access to your system. If your signal can be accessed by anyone on the street, it can be detected and exploited by unscrupulous people, but if your network security is inadequate, they may even be able to gain access to confidential information.

2. The inclusion of the encryption scheme of the network

All Wi-Fi equipment supports some form, which makes the encryption of messages sent over the wireless network is less likely to be read by an external body. Available schemes vary with WEP encryption is weak (and old) and WPA - WPA2, and now - being stronger and better. You can not mix and match, although, as with all Wi-Fi devices on your network must use the same encryption scheme. WEP may not be as good as WPA settings, but remember that it is much better than no encryption at all.

3. Choose a new default user and administrator password

Access Points, or the router is the heart of your home Wi-Fi network. This comes from the factory with a default administrator usernames and passwords. Manufacturers set both the account username and password at the factory. Administrator account allows the user to enter the network addresses and information. Username often simply the word admin or administrator. Password is usually empty or consists of the word “administrator”, “public” or “password”. Hackers are well aware of such default, and if you do not change them, it represents a serious risk of the network is accessible on the baddie. Once you set up your access point or router to change the administrator username and password, and it’s a good idea to change them on a regular basis, say every 30 to 60 days.

4. Change the default SSID name

Manufacturers of Wi-Fi access points and routers, typically ship their products by default network name (SSID on). SSID stands for Service Set Identifier, which is a 32-character sequence that uniquely identifies a wireless local area network. In other words, the SSID name of your wireless network. To ensure that the mobile device to connect to a wireless network, he must know the SSID of the wireless network in question. If you connect your wireless router or access point, and leave the default SSID, it will not take long for the attacker to determine what is the SSID. Once you set up your access point or router, change the SSID to a unique name that will be difficult to guess.

5. Disabling SSID broadcasting

SSID broadcast of your access point or router is happening every few seconds, and is designed to allow users to locate, identify and connect to Wi-Fi networks. If you have a wireless device, this feature allows you to discover the network, which is in the range, and that their names. This is the first step in connecting to Wi-Fi network. This feature is not necessary in the home network, however, and this is undesirable because it allows outside organizations to detect your network’s SSID. It is strongly recommended that the home network users to disable this feature in order to improve the security of your Wi-Fi network.

6. Enable MAC-address filtering

The functionality of the known media access control (MAC) address filtering uses the physical computer hardware. Each computer has its own unique MAC-address. MAC-address filtering allows the network administrator to enter a list of MAC-addresses that can communicate on the network. It also allows the network administrator to deny access to any MAC-address is not allowed on the network. This method is very reliable, but if you buy a new computer or if visitors want to use your home network, you need to add a new machine MAC-address to the list of approved addresses.

7. Assigning a static IP-address of the device

Static IP-destination address (sometimes also called a fixed address) is an alternative to dynamic solutions (called DHCP) for Internet protocol networks. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is an Internet protocol for automatic configuration of computers using TCP / IP. DHCP can be used to automatically assign IP-addresses of devices connected to your Wi-Fi network .. Dynamic addressing is convenient. It also allows the use of mobile computers to more easily move between different networks. Unfortunately, this can work for hackers who can get the real IP-address from the network DHCP-pool. To avoid this possibility, disable DHCP on your access point or router and assign a fixed IP-address for each device in the network.

8. Including hardware and software firewalls in the network

Most routers these days contain a built-in hardware firewall capabilities, but it is also recommended that each computer (PC or laptop) connected to a Wi-Fi network must have a personal firewall installed. Software firewall protects your computer against penetration by scanning incoming messages and block suspicious traffic from entering the system. This will also prevent unauthorized outgoing messages that may prevent your system from Trojans send valuable information to the hacker.

9. ????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ? ???????? Wi-Fi ?????

If Wi-Fi allows the device detects an open (ie, unsecured) Wi-Fi networks, such as free wireless point, or even neighbors unsecured network, it can connect automatically without notice to you. For example, on Windows XP computers with Wi-Fi connections is controlled by the operating system is called the “Automatically connect to non preferred networks.” Once connected, you can expose your system safe. Turn off all automatic connections, or at least allow the connection once you have been informed and approved the communication.

10. Shut down your network if you do not use

If Wi-Fi network is not enabled, hackers can not get to it. This is perhaps the best way to avoid security problems. Of course, if it is off, you can not use it as … However, consider disabling the wireless system in the rejection of the application, such as vacation, if you’re away from home on business, or any other times when you know you will not use it.

Multiplayer Xbox 360 Games - Your Ultimate Guide

2009-10-08T18:55:00.000+07:00

Total gaming community went nuts, when Microsoft released its first video-game console, Xbox 360, and since the Xbox 360 game filled the shelves of video game stores around the world from the United States to Great Britain, and in various Asian countries.

There are many features that are built on the Xbox 360, which made the average gaming experience of 90 years Incredibly upgraded, impressive and interactive, and one of them is the multiplayer features in some games where you can play split screen on a maximum of three other players.

The function of multiplayer on the Xbox 360 brand-new that people are accustomed to when they are stuck with the previous generations of gaming consoles. The only disadvantage with multiplayer feature of the Xbox 360, that not all games have this feature, and if you’re not keen eye on these types of games, then eventually buy expensive game, risking the possibility of having to play it without the help of friends. Thus, in order to be able to solve this problem, Xbox 360 fans, who know something about the web to give another guy Xbox players a chance to check first if the game has its own particular feature or not.

Gates for all these games is the World Wide Web, so if you plan to add another Xbox 360 game in your collection and would like to play multiplayer with your friends, check these sites is the first step. Believe it or not, there are over a hundred Web sites with lists of all the latest multiplayer games this year, so you do not have to worry about buying a wrong game, which is not designed to play the game in the end.

You can look at some of them through search engines like Google, MSN and Yahoo. In one particular site, you can search through the multiplayer games based on its genre, such as strategy, role-playing games, sports, action and even a family game.

View the list of games before you buy them from video stores (offline or online) has its advantages and disadvantages, though. How can I check if the first game is worth buying given the experience of multiplayer in our minds, we can not help wondering if this game is really interesting, has high marks from gaming experts, as well as positive feedback from other Xbox 360 players.

This requires the need to review games and Xbox is the next thing you should beware. Reviews written or Xbox games or regular specialists still dependent Xbox players already can be the key to making your Xbox 360 multiplayer experience memorable with your family and friends. Moreover, you’ll save yourself from unnecessary expenses for the game, which is not even worth your time and button mashing.

The Best Methods to Quit Smoking Today

2009-10-03T19:01:00.000+07:00

There are many ways to quit smoking today, these methods differ significantly from classical anti-nicotine treatments to herbal alternatives and even to hypnosis solutions. Smokers have two different problems: the psychological and the physical nicotine addiction. Once you have that are more likely to quit smoking now understood. One of the most popular solutions against smoking is the use of nicotine replacement products like gum or patches. These products are easily found at any pharmacy, and doctors also recommend that you contact the advice to stop smoking today. The nicotine replacement products have moderate success on a strategy to quit smoking, so that today it is a good start. Another way to quit smoking today is to replace cigarettes with other nicotine those who smoked less, this first step is often to reduce the number of cigarettes per day, followed.

Another method to quit smoking today is the trigger for what it does is that you smoke. Once you know what your smoking please, we can take action. The decision to stop smoking today can work very well if you decide to quit smoking “Cold Turkey”. Also consider whether to help a smoke-free for you as a family member or friend, give valuable support in their efforts to quit smoking today. Another strategy to stop smoking today is that every time you lit a sense, a cigarette, to stop and think about the benefits of health problems caused by smoking. Take control of your life is not easy if you have an addiction, but try the best way to start. The most important thing is to reinforce the effort not to give up his plan and points out that there is only a matter of time until they finally escape from this deadly habit.

Finding the best method to quit smoking today, sometimes, of course, comes when there is enough positive determination. Many of those who quit smoking today, whether for serious health problems. To eliminate the addiction to nicotine, you have as much money as possible until you try to succeed. Unfortunately, most smokers do not believe that trying to quit smoking now is just a problem of will. Nicotine is highly addictive and most people do not understand what happened, a smoker if he or she tries to quit smoking. A winning formula against smoking that contain anti-nicotine treatment, counseling and educational information on the effects of smoking and much positive thinking. So stop smoking today!

Repair Ps3 Freezes – Fix My Playstation 3 by myself ?

2009-09-27T18:47:00.000+07:00

There are problems with the Playstation 3? Does your PS3 freeze? Do you want to fix this? You have 2 ways to solve this problem. You either send your console to Sony, or you really will not solve the problem yourself using the repair manual!

Repair PS3 freezing problems Sony?

What would you do it, that you send over the Playstation 3 console malfunctions Sony. While this may sound like a great opportunity to do, but it does not … Why? This is because of the money is, and you are due to downtime. If you are actually sending your console Sony, they will ask you $ 150 for repairs. But this is only if your warranty has expired. Another is the negative expectations of the time. You just have to wait weeks before you get your Playstation 3 before.

Repair PS3 freezing problems … About Me If you are using a repair manual?

It is pretty much the best option that you have, if you want easy, quick and cheap fix. When you do this, it is recommended that you use for the repair manual. This is because it will take all the guess work, as you will see step by step instructions, which are also coming along with detailed photos. When you do this, you do not have to pay $ 150 for repairs. The only thing you need to spend money on this Playstation 3 repair manual. Another reason why this option is better than sending it to Sony, is the fact that when you do it yourself, you could be done within 1 day, or even within 1 hour! How cool is that? You’ll just start playing your favorite game again …. Today!

Repair PS3 freezing problem …..?

So, I gave you the information you need to do is you make a choice at this time. If you want to costly and lengthy repairs, go to send it to the Sony version. I know that almost everyone will tell you to send it to Sony, but they just do not know whether or not to seek other ways. Just repair your PS3 freezing problems actually repair your console itself. As I said earlier, it is recommended to use the Playstation 3 Repair Guide

They do not need to pay $ 150 for expensive repairs, and there is no need to wait for weeks either! If you want a simple, cheap and quick repair …. Do it yourself! Want to know how to start? Visit: Repair PS3 freezing problem Myself

Sony VAIO VGNP530CHW Laptop - A Light-weighed mini Laptop with High-tech features

2009-09-18T18:43:00.000+07:00

Sony, being reputed for its innovative Electronic products, aims to fully accomplish this uniqueness in carrying out their convergence strategy so that they can continue to emotionally touch and excite their customers.

Recently, Sony has unleashed a new laptop in VAIO series — Sony VGNP530CHW, the world’s lightest 8-inch notebook that weighs 1.4-pound with impeccable style. This Pocket-Style PC adds passion for our life through its classic design and features Intel’s smallest processor, integrated Wi-Fi and Bluetooth technology.

This P Series notebook comes incorporated with 2GB of pre-installed memory to maximize all our applications and needs. Users can run the most intensive programs and still have the capacity to complete the most urgent of their tasks. It is more efficient for multi-tasking applications. Moreover this Intel smallest processor-based notebook provides both an easy-to-use mobile device with simple interfaces and aimed performance for a good online experience. They are uneven and compact in design, and offer the freedom and pliable of wireless connectivity.

Moreover, there is a G-Sensor Shock Protection Technology that makes our data even less harmed to loss or damage. When the built-in 3D acceleration sensor detects a risky movement, the HDD-head will lock up to secure its position and help to protect the disc from scratching. With an LED backlit display, this notebook can easily pass through our workload and entertainment for hours. With up to 4 hours of standard battery back-up, this laptop is an ideal mobile companion when you’re on the go. Also the keyboard is designed wisely with ingeniously-spaced keys for both long fingernails and large hands.

Lose 10lbs Fast the Easy Way

2009-09-07T18:39:00.000+07:00

If you have tried to lose weight in the past and failed, do not worry you are not alone. My six simple tips, weight loss, to help you quickly lose 10lbs are the following:

1. Reduce your fat and salt. This could be a massive factor in the amount of weight you carry around.

2. The development and training is valuable, try to do the exercises in the morning, if possible. The purpose of this is because it raises your metabolic rate all the way through the day, giving you more energy and additional fat burning.

3. The amount of water you drink, it is important to rinse the system and maintain a healthy lifestyle. You want to be one to drinking two liters of water a day. Although this is one of the fastest fat loss tips, very few people actually do it.

4. The protein may play a big role in your diet. This should ensure the transformation of fat in your muscles. Protein shakes useful with eggs and apples, which are fiber to fill you a little more and curb your appetite.

5. If you are going to arrange a big meal, to ensure your big meals earlier in the day. This allows you to burn some of those calories during the rest of the day. Your low calorie food should be lunch, as usual, will not be very active after dinner.

6. If you want to lose 10lbs fast to set a goal and strive to achieve it. Give yourself something to work, so you can be confident and motivated. When setting your goals, you want to force yourself, but set goals that are achievable not completely unrealistic.

How To Install Windows 7 Via USB Drive

2009-09-01T18:31:00.000+07:00

With the release of Windows 7 (end of October), most of the especially netbook users, just like you, will want to upgrade their operating systems. Whether they have Windows XP or Vista. Actually, almost all of the netbook users are going to change their OS because, Windows 7 Starter Edition is made for specifically for netbooks to make them more quicker and comfortable. That’s why, i think, now you are doing this because of this. But, as all you know netbook do not have DVD driver and how can you install new operating system to them? Let’s check it out.

1) First of all, you need to download a program which is called A bootable USB and here is the links for download it.

* http://rapidshare.com/files/246754337/A_Bootable_USB.zip
* http://www.mediafire.com/download.php?mmtditiydmm

2) After you download, install the program on your computer.

3) Check USB drives by program. A list of drives will appear in the combo box. Note: drives under 4 GB will not be shown as they are not supported and the list will show only formatted drives which means you have to acquire a new USB drive:)

4) Before you go, format your USB drive.

5) Choose the version which you want to install Windows 7. If you chose DVD version, insert your DVD into drive or simply mount your ISO to any virtual drive. Click on Check DVD button and then Start DVD button. If you chose ISO version, click on Open ISO button and browse for your ISO file. After opening ISO click Start ISO button.

6) That is all, now you have a bootable USB drive. All you have to do is restarting your
netbook and choosing your USB to boot your mini notebook. [Check USB] drives. A list of drives will appear in the combo box.Note: drives under 4 GB will not be shown as they are not supported and the list will show only formatted drives[Check USB] drives. A list of drives will appear in the combo box.

Restaurant City Tips and Tricks

2009-08-30T19:45:00.002+07:00

We all love food. We appreciate food and we crave for food.

Before, I want to have my own restaurant. However, I don’t have the resources to pursue that dream but thanks to Restaurant City, I can at least pretend that I can. Restaurant City is a new game on facebook developed by Playfish.

In Restaurant City, you get to create and run your very own restaurant! Design it, decorate it, hire your friends to work in it, and collect new ingredients and menu items!

I’ve been playing Restaurant City for a week now and I’m loving it.

So now, let me share some few tips and pointers for Restaurant City.

How do you get ingredients?

* Daily Freebie
This is automatic and will greet you as soon as you log on each day.
* Daily Quiz
Each day, you receive a quiz question in your inbox. If you answer the food quiz correctly, you get a free ingredient.
* Visiting a Friend’s restaurant for the first time (Get clicking!)

How can I gain GP (Gourmet points) faster?
Simple. Keep your browser on! Just leave your restaurant city on, even if you’re not playing. This way, you’ll be sure to gain those extra points which you cannot get while you’re offline. This is also useful if you want to gain level faster.

Keep your employees happy!
Feed them or let them rest. If only they have natural appetite suppressant, so it can suppress their appetite, burn fat and increase their energy output. Remember: Higher happiness = More productivity.

Ways to gain more coins
Get quick coins by picking up trash and shaking trees. While you’re in restaurant view, scroll around your lot. Click all the trees you see because they sometimes drop coins. You aren’t guaranteed a coin every time you do it but it is still an easy way to gain some coins.

Focus on one recipe
Restrain yourself from leveling up lots of recipes art once. Your restaurant can only serve one dish from each category (appetizer, main course & dessert) at a time. So, choose one recipe, click to make sure it’s the recipe being served, and level that up. The higher the level, the more reputation you gain per customer. Make use of the trading feature in Restaurant city!

Meal level to thumbs up conversion
Level 1 = +1.0
Level 2 = +1.2
Level 3 = +1.4
Level 4 = +1.6
Level 5 = +1.8
Level 6 = +2.0
Level 7 = +2.2
Level 8 = +2.4
Level 9 = +2.6
Level10 = +2.8

Make your layout more efficient
As much as possible, avoid too much space between the waiters and the tables. Fix your table layout so that your waiter doesn’t have to walk far to serve your tables.

For the table ratio, I go for 3:1. It means 3 tables per 1 cook. Then 1-2 waiters per 3 cooks.

Prioritize more cooks over waiters.

Play in lower quality
There’s a button on the top left corner of the game which allows you to adjust the game quality. Changing your quality to low makes the game run much faster, hence each customer visit goes faster = more cash.

Create waiting chairs
Waiting chair is a feature which allows you to increase the time in which a customer waits before leaving. This is useful as every customer who leaves disgruntled results in a decrease of your restaurant’s reputation. To make waiting chairs, read the following tips for higher success rate.

* Don’t place the waiting chairs next to the door
* Don’t place too many chairs.
* Place one or two arcade machines to keep your customers entertained for a bit longer.

Make a maze
If your waiters are struggling to clear the dishes in time for new customers then make a maze. This increases the time the customer takes to reach the table and the table should have already been cleared by the time the customer reaches it.

Close your Restaurant
If you can’t login for a long time, you may close your restaurant by blocking the door with something like a chair, table or your mailbox. Or you can just remove the door itself.

Warning: Restaurant City is very addicting. LOL …

Also you can check my post on Restaurant City Daily Quiz Q and A.

All costs of war in Iraq for USA

2009-08-10T10:51:00.000+07:00

So far, the war in Iraq costs America more than 2 trillion. dollars and this amount continues to grow every day. A separate debate is needed to understand how much that amount. In this article we will try to break down these costs by their nature and origin:

Human costs.
The reason for starting the costs fairly straight forward. Human irretrievable loss, and they never can be monetized. To date the article was written, the war in Iraq has claimed the lives of 4,323 U.S. military personnel. The number of wounded in action or wounded in combat zones of the accident reached 31,368.

Given the frequency of the battles that U.S. forces are currently exposed to this number, obviously, is not final. In addition, the fee data were compiled from official statistics submitted to the Pentagon, which was widely criticized by the public to an underestimation of the real victims. According to the Department of Veterans Affairs - Department of the autonomous government of the Pentagon - the number of wounded has exceeded 50000.
Combat operations costs.
To date, $ 686 billion dollars were allocated for the war in Iraq since its inception in March 2003 to cover daily cash costs of combat operations, food, housing, transportation and supply of U.S. troops, the cost for the renovation, repair and replacement parts and training Iraqi forces. The amount of $ 200,000,000 is growing! every day, so that by the time you finish reading this article, it will grow by about half a million dollars! This trend will not be affected by major changes, at least until the end of 2009 in general expenses were approved in 2009 budget. Given that Obama has already announced the reduction and eventual withdrawal of troops from Iraq, it is possible to estimate roughly 130 billion rubles. still to come, provided that all soldiers will be withdrawn in 1,5-2 years. This gives a total of 816 billion rubles. U.S. direct expenditures, the costs of the war in Iraq. It also includes payment of $ 500,000 in death benefit payments, and life insurance to the families of those killed in Iraq.

Medical expenses.
These include all costs for treatment of medical problems in personnel, such as the explosion wounded arms and legs from improvised explosive devices, the historically high instances of traumatic brain damage, post-traumatic stress disorder. The group said doctors had predicted that the health of Iraq veterans could top $ 650 billion. We can also rely on data for veterans disability payments. For example, a veteran without a spouse or family that are 100 per cent of people with disabilities receive about $ 2400 a month by the Government. For 50 years, which could total more than 1.4 million dollars. Multiplying that number of disabled veterans will be added fully 10-15 billion dollars more. In addition, an increasing number of soldiers are not seeking care, they need that affects their ability to retain jobs, and that ultimately leads to higher costs invisible.

Military expenditure replenishment.
War in Iraq stretched the U.S. military dangerously thin. High levels of losses, more than half a decade has undermined the "human capital" of armed forces. Using the current difficulties in the recruitment of America will have to invest significant resources in troops to restore their pre-war level of strength, fitness and readiness. In addition, it may take more than a decade to fully recharge, and repair of military equipment and technology which have been significantly depleted by the war. Estimates show that over fifteen years of the military would need $ -375 $ 250 billion for the reconstruction of the entire armed forces.

The economic costs.
There are many economic costs surrounding the war in Iraq. First, there is the cost of deployment in Iraq, 40% of National Guard and reserve forces. Quantitative economic costs, it is the difference between civilian salary and that they would receive in their regular work and lower wages, they are usually paid in the reserves. Another economic costs of war victims. It is the individual income and their contribution to the economy in advance due to their death. Here also is the economic cost of these serious injuries, which includes the additional medical expenses, which the parties hold themselves apart from the fact that the government pays and the loss of economic services. Taking Stiglitz estimates made in 2006, and extrapolating its figures until today, we will receive approximately 200 billion dollars in economic costs that the U.S. incurred in connection with the war in Iraq.

Unrecorded expenses.
Now let's try to list the expenses that are obvious, but not quantifiable. Consider security. The war in Iraq, and, incidentally, the general instability in the Middle East has exacerbated the hatred toward the U.S. throughout the world. This, in turn, exacerbated the domestic threat of terror and made Americans less safe clearly and confidently. Of course, there are many negative consequences of this war they can not comprehend. Below is just a brief list of costs included higher ratings:
* All costs borne by other countries, including Iraq.
* The cost of planning the war.
* Prices for oil price volatility.
* The effects of loss of confidence
* Reduced demand due to anti-American sentiments (eg, loss of tourists)

Why Pakistan was ignored ?... India and China invited by President.Obama to attend the Annual G-8 Summit 2009 at Italy?

2009-08-02T11:26:00.000+07:00

Fleshy bones thrown in the direction of India in the United States. In the recent events and developments in the relations between them, clearly confirms that the U.S. is appeasing India.

Generous and the extreme importance of United States extends to India, and over its strongest ally of Pakistan in the war against terror. For example, the civilian nuclear agreement, the invitation to India and China to participate in the exclusive G-8 Summit 2009 (ignoring Pakistan) held this month in Italy, the United States distancing from the Kashmir issue, describing it as a bilateral issue between India and Pakistan, not least the planned upcoming visit of Mrs. Hillary Clinton, U.S. Secretary of State in order to strengthen bilateral relations, describing India as a major developing countries in the world.

However, the fact that I do not understand this policy of inviting China together with India, President. Obama, while ignoring Pakistan. In addition, it makes me whether the war on terror is not a priority at G-8 members?. He has not been listed on the agenda of the 2009 Summit of the G-!

I have attached below a letter to the editor published in the daily newspaper Dawn in Pakistan, the provincial Minister of Culture and Tourism of Sindh, to express its concern at the fact that I told above about the G-8 Summit 2009.

/ / G-8 summit ignores Pakistan

Tuesday, July 14, 2009 | 02:07 AM PST
Each year, three-day summit of the Group of Eight leading industrialized countries was held recently in the area devastated by an earthquake less than 100 days ago. President Barrack Obama has invited colleagues from China, India, Brazil, South Africa, Mexico and other countries to it.

G-8 Summit is a great challenge to world leaders to address economic issues, the fight against hunger in the world and solve the problem of climate change, after last year's global financial crisis.

G-8 talks traditionally unite eight major countries: Britain, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia and the United States. At the same time, the recent summit was expanded to include emerging powers such as China and India. In the talks also focused on the emerging political crisis in China's Xinjiang region, Iran and Honduras.

We know that the G-8 countries have suffered severe economic decline following the credit crisis in the United States, which quickly dragged world in its worst recession since the early 1930-ies. While I agree that climate change is an important issue as well and had to decide what can be said about the endless war on terror and war, as the situation that our country faces in the various fields. As a result of the turbulent situation, Pakistan is facing serious economic problems, but he was not even invited to the summit to discuss these.

Recently I read an article co-authored with Nicolas Sarkozy, President of France, and Luix Inla da Silva, President of Brazil, published in The New York Times. In this article, they talked about various global problems, but there is no mention of "terrorism", which allows you to wonder how they forgot to mention it as it is the most serious threats and challenges.

Then I came to learn about the G-8 on the agenda of the Summit, and I was very disappointed to learn that there is no mention of Pakistan in any place. I think, and I am sure that other people will agree with me that "terror" should have been at the summit agenda.

Many believe that the response of the U.S. administration against terrorism was a general in line with the concept of its own national interests, national prestige and power, and international positions.

Today, the Pakistani people to ask about their security and national interests. We do not want them to think that they are used as tissue paper, and nobody cares about the dignity, welfare and safety.

Our people believe that nothing can justify the continued drone attacks. But if the G-8 countries have no justification, then Pakistan should be included in the agenda of the summit.

There is a growing feeling among the defenders, who, despite the current global challenges and threats created by terrorists, human rights for all people, especially the poor and the weak must be protected.

Needless to say that terrorism as a tool of destabilization, both within and between nations, has become the biggest threat that must be properly as soon as possible.

I would like to stress that the G-8 and other First World countries should understand that Pakistan has lost a lot in this "war on terror." Our people, especially leaders like Benazir Bhutto, have made so many victims in this fight. I firmly believe that Pakistan should be a priority when planning for such international summits in the future.

SASSUI PALIJO
Minister of Culture and Tourism
The Government of Sindh Karachi / /

The issue of Pakistan, ignoring rising not only because the agenda didn't include in the war on terror, but also that Pakistan is as important country in South Asia, probably longer because front-line ally in the war against terror, but also a nuclear state, such as two other new invitees.It is a known fact that Pakistan and India have traditionally been, and not on good relations, and keeping the hosts inview should be realized that by offering one another can not send a message or not Vibes on one ignored.The confidence deficit could be even damaged.Thus in fairness, if India was invited to it, Pakistan should have!

BACK AND FORTH IN IRAN

2009-08-01T20:35:00.001+07:00

Persia was the name of Iran in ancient times.

Today it is known as the Islamic Republic of Iran led by its leader clergy.

In a country with its capital, Tehran is situated between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf, and consists of a central plateau surrounded by mountains.

The Islamic Republic was born 30 years ago on 1 April 1979.

In a country in ancient times, and culture is one of the largest oil-producing regions, the Middle East.

It seems that Iran owns 7.5 percent of total world oil reserves and 15 percent of world gas reserves.

India and Pakistan are interested to receive gas from Iran through a pipeline.

I do not know what happened to the big pipe project is lying.

After the fall and the dissolution of Iraq, neighboring countries, Iran is in the news because of his tough President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's dictatorial government.

Ahmadinejad is a staunch supporter of his own ideas and deadly against the Americans.

Iran's nuclear policy would be not very good for the American government and its allies.

Even if the Bush administration has not been so well and with Obama.

At the last election, Ahmadinejad stated that he had received more than 60 percent of the votes and won the election.

But the majority of world supports Iran Hossein Mousavi, the opposition candidates, which is relatively soft, not for recognition of the election verdict.

They believe that Ahmadinejad was a fraud.

There is a big fight after the election takes place between the two groups.

Moussaoui appealed the election results.

Moussaoui Supporters Protest in Tehran say that it is a 'stolen election. "

Ignoring election, according to Moussaoui, Ahmadinejad said his country will continue to play an important international role in the coming days.

During the first press conference held after his re-election, he noted that the election of a football match played by two teams, and the loser should just let it go.

Logically, he is right, but why the confusion after the election?

If the elections were free and fair, it makes no sense to criticize the validity of the election.

This is unfair elections in Iran?

If so, that is the point of protest by the Iranians.

I could see a huge crowd in television assembly in Tehran to protest against the electoral victory of Ahmadinejad.

The integrity of the election being questioned in connection with the deliberate closure of SMS services throughout Iran, and an incredibly low voices of reformist leader Musawi, in his hometown of Tabriz.

If the question Moussaoui and his supporters will be successful?

If yes, how?

Or there should be a revolution to overthrow the elected government of Ahmadinejad.

There is an element of external support from the United States and Britain in the Moussaoui.

Americans and Britons do not want to see Ahmadinejad once again in power, because its confrontationist attitude and insist on making Iran a nuclear power.

The international influence on Iran to overthrow Ahmadinejad, obviously, expected.

Only time will tell us the future of Iran.

In street battles shook Tehran.

Seven people lost their lives in the fire.

In addition, the government organized a huge rally in central Tehran.

Witnessed the two sides fighting in the streets, Aytollah Ali Khamenei, for the Supervisory Board to declare June 16, 2009 that it was ready to move forward on the recount of disputed ballot boxes.

But the news was wrong.

What else can they do?

Jun 19, 2009 Iran's supreme leader Ayatollah Ali Khamnei strongly endorsed the results of disputed presidential election and warned the protesters to keep out of the street.

His reasoning that the margin of victory in favor of Ahmadinejad suggests that counterfeiting is not possible.

But Mir Hossein Mousavi MahmoudAhmadinejad accused of lying about the economy of Iran said, "We are against the person who said black is white, and four times four equals five. He looks into the camera and is self-confidence."

Ahmadinejad, at the same time said that Moussaoui and other competitors should be in jail for their comments. He added: "Nobody has the right to insult the president"

This is the fate of Iran at the present time.

Let's wait for a better future for Iran.

Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono

2009-07-21T10:52:00.002+07:00

General TNI (Ret) Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, popularly known as SBY, was born in Pacitan, East Java, on 9 September 1949. He graduated from the Military Academy in 1973-top in his class. He received his fourth star in 2000. In the first-ever direct presidential election in Indonesia in 2004, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, running on a platform for "more just, more peaceful, more prosperous, and more democratic Indonesia", was elected as the 6th President of the Republic of Indonesia, gaining a landslide 60% of the popular vote over the incumbent President Megawati Soekarnoputri.

President Yudhoyono is also an accomplished scholar. He was educated in the United States, where he received his Masters degree in Management from Webster University in 1991. He continued his study and earned a Doctorate Degree in Agricultural Economics from Bogor Institute of Agriculture, West Java, Indonesia, in 2004. President Yudhoyono was awarded with two honorary doctorates in 2005, respectively in the field of law from his alma mater, Webster University, and in political science from Thammasat University in Thailand.

During his 27-year distinguished military service, President Yudhoyono took an extensive range of training, education and courses, both in Indonesia and overseas. President Yudhoyono also held numerous important posts and positions as troop and territorial commander, staff officer, trainer and lecturer. He served both in the field and at headquarters, as well as missions overseas. He was the Commander of the United Nations Military Observers and Commander of the Indonesian Military Contingent in Bosnia-Herzegovina from 1995-1996.

For his outstanding service, President Yudhoyono was decorated with 24 medals and awards, including the UNPKF Medal, the Bintang Dharma, the Bintang Mahaputera Adipurna and the Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipurna, the highest national medal for excellent service beyond the calls of duty.

Prior to being elected, President Yudhoyono held various important government positions, including Minister of Mining and Energy and Co-ordinating Minister for Political, Social, and Security Affairs in the National Unity Cabinet under President Abdurrahman Wahid. He again served as Co-ordinating Minister for Political, Social, and Security Affairs in the Gotong Royong Cabinet under President Megawati Soekarnoputri. It was in his capacity as Coordinating Minister that he became internationally recognized for leading Indonesia's counter-terrorism efforts.

President Yudhoyono is also known for his activities in various civil society organizations. He served as Co-Chairman of the Governing Board of the Partnership for the Governance Reform, a joint Indonesian-international organization focused on the improvement of governance in Indonesia. He also served as Chairman of the Advisory Board of the Brighten Institute, an institution devoted to studying the theory and practice of national development policy.

President Yudhoyono is a keen reader and has authored a number of books and articles including: Transforming Indonesia: Selected International Speeches (2005), Peace deal with Aceh is just a beginning (2005), The Making of a Hero (2005), Revitalization of the Indonesian Economy: Business, Politics and Good Governance (2002), and Coping with the Crisis - Securing the Reform (1999). Taman Kehidupan (Garden of Life) is his anthology published in 2004. President Yudhoyono speaks English fluently.

President Yudhoyono is a devoted Moslem. He is married to Madam Ani Herrawati. The first couple is blessed with two sons. The oldest is First Lieutenant Agus Harimurti Yudhoyono, who graduated top in his class from the Military Academy in 2000 and is now serving at the elite 305th Airborne Battalion of the Army Strategic Reserves Command (KOSTRAD). The youngest, Edhie Baskoro Yudhoyono, earned his degree in Economics from Curtin University, Australia.

Rudd picks Robert Hill to head carbon trust

2009-07-21T10:49:00.000+07:00

KEVIN Rudd has turned to a former Howard government minister to head the Australian Carbon Trust, in a move that will further exacerbate Coalition tensions on climate change.

As environment minister, Robert Hill led the Australian team at the Kyoto climate change conference in 1997.

The appointment creates new problems for Opposition Leader Malcolm Turnbull, who has angered some senior colleagues by publicly floating a new emissions trading strategy despite failing to win shadow cabinet support for the position.

The Carbon Trust is designed to help Australian households contribute directly to reducing carbon pollution by promoting energy efficiency measures to households and businesses.

Mr Hill, who served as environment minister between 1996 and 2001 before representing Australia at the United Nations, described the Kyoto Protocol as a landmark agreement for the global environment.

"The Kyoto Protocol protects Australia's export competitiveness and employment prospects in Australia's substantial mineral processing and energy export industries," he said at the time.

"The agreement to establish a greenhouse gas emissions trading regime will be an essential component of this."

Professor Hill is understood to have supported the ratification of Kyoto, but this did not occur until the election of the Rudd government.

Mr Rudd said Professor Hill would work with the board to manage and implement the Trust's two key initiatives; the Energy Efficiency Savings Pledge Fund and the Energy Efficiency Trust.

"The Energy Efficiency Savings Pledge Fund will provide a web-based calculator so that households can calculate their energy use and the dollar savings that result from energy efficiency activities,” Mr Rudd said.

"Individuals will be able to pledge the resulting savings, or any other amount, to the Pledge Fund to buy and cancel carbon pollution permits. This will enable individuals to directly contribute to achieving Australia's emissions reduction targets. The Pledge Fund will be entirely voluntary and contributions will be tax deductible.

"The Energy Efficiency Trust will bring together public and private seed funding, business skills and culture and technical knowledge to leverage investment in energy efficiency activities in commercial buildings and other business operations."

The Australian Carbon Trust will be developed in collaboration with the Carbon Trust in the United Kingdom, which works with business to cut carbon and develop commercial low carbon technologies.

Megawati Sukarnoputri

2009-07-21T10:46:00.002+07:00

When she came to power in Indonesia in July 2001, Megawati Sukarnoputri took over a country beset by economic hardship and sectarian violence.

At the end of her first term in office, many Indonesians have been left feeling that not much has changed.

Megawati inherited the presidency from Abdurrahman Wahid in July 2001.

As the daughter of former President Sukarno, she was revered by many in Indonesia as the answer to all their problems.

But three years on, rampant corruption, soaring unemployment and the increasing threat from Islamic militants have done little to endear her to the Indonesian public.

Megawati has achieved some successes – notably in improving political stability.

She also won international acclaim when she attended a ceremony in East Timor in 2002, to mark its independence from Indonesia.

But she has failed to make any lasting progress in the fight against corruption, and has remained largely silent on her efforts to combat terrorism and regional militancy, a stance she was criticised for in the aftermath of the Bali bomb attacks in 2002.

She has also been accused of lacking her father’s charisma, and often appears remote and even aloof, delegating many of her scheduled public duties to senior ministers.

Even her election campaign has been somewhat lacklustre, according to political observers.

During television debates with her political rivals, she often appeared uncomfortable and read out many of her answers from prepared notes.

When her party, the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDIP), came second in the April 2004 parliamentary elections, many political observers saw the result as a sign of things to come in the presidential election only three months later.

Family business

Megawati was born in January 1947, into one of Indonesia’s most powerful families.

Her father, Sukarno, led the country to independence from Dutch colonial rule after World War II and became its first president.

Despite being a member of such a famous political family, Megawati was propelled into the limelight almost by default.

It was only in 1987, at the age of 40, that she reluctantly joined the opposition to former President Suharto’s authoritarian government.

But her family name soon insured she became a symbol of popular resistance – so much so that in 1996, Suharto tried to remove her as leader of the PDIP, provoking demonstrations in the capital.

His supporters attacked the party headquarters, leaving at least five dead and many others injured.

The incident transformed Megawati into a national hero.

After Suharto’s resignation in May 1998, Megawati relaunched the PDIP, and in the country’s first free parliamentary elections in 1999, her party won the most votes.

But the national assembly – parliament’s upper house, which elected presidents until the 2004 poll – denied her the top job in favour of Abdurrahman Wahid. Megawati became his vice-president.

She automatically became Indonesia’s leader after Mr Wahid was dismissed for incompetence and alleged corruption in July 2001.

Bailout Worst Case Tally: $23.7 Trillion

2009-07-21T10:20:00.001+07:00

The chief watchdog over the government's massive bail-out effort has come up with a worst-case scenario price tag for taxpayers ... and it's a stunning figure by any measure.

To give you an idea of how big we're talking, the cost is measured isn't measured in millions or billions... but trillions.

Here's the breakdown of what could ultimately spent under each agency if all goes wrong. That's according to the oversight report to be presented to Congress Tuesday by bailout Inspector General Neil Barofsky.

• $6.8 trillion from the Federal Reserve

• $2.3 trillion from the FDIC

• $7.4 trillion from Treasury

• $7.2 trillion in other government programs

That adds up to $23.7 trillion dollars.

That's more than the moon shot, the New Deal and World War II combined ... in 2008 dollars. And it's way more than the entire U.S. gross domestic product -- just over $14 trillion.

"If you spent a million dollars every day since the birth of Jesus you wouldn't have spent this much," said U.S. Rep Darrell Issa, R-Calif., who is ranking member of the House Oversight Subcommittee on Domestic Policy.

A Treasury Department spokesman sounded exasperated by the staggering estimate from the Inspector General, calling it "ridiculous," and "inflated." Treasury says less than $2 trillion dollars has been spent so far, and that the total cost will likely never come near $23 trillion dollars.

But even a hint of such daunting possibility is especially touchy at a time when the president is pushing an expensive health care plan that the congressional budget office recently said would go

BARACK OBAMA

2009-07-21T10:12:00.001+07:00

His story is the American story — values from the heartland, a middle-class upbringing in a strong family, hard work and education as the means of getting ahead, and the conviction that a life so blessed should be lived in service to others.

With a father from Kenya and a mother from Kansas, President Obama was born in Hawaii on August 4, 1961. He was raised with help from his grandfather, who served in Patton's army, and his grandmother, who worked her way up from the secretarial pool to middle management at a bank.

After working his way through college with the help of scholarships and student loans, President Obama moved to Chicago, where he worked with a group of churches to help rebuild communities devastated by the closure of local steel plants.

He went on to attend law school, where he became the first African—American president of the Harvard Law Review. Upon graduation, he returned to Chicago to help lead a voter registration drive, teach constitutional law at the University of Chicago, and remain active in his community.

President Obama's years of public service are based around his unwavering belief in the ability to unite people around a politics of purpose. In the Illinois State Senate, he passed the first major ethics reform in 25 years, cut taxes for working families, and expanded health care for children and their parents. As a United States Senator, he reached across the aisle to pass groundbreaking lobbying reform, lock up the world's most dangerous weapons, and bring transparency to government by putting federal spending online.

He was elected the 44th President of the United States on November 4, 2008, and sworn in on January 20, 2009. He and his wife, Michelle, are the proud parents of two daughters, Malia, 10, and Sasha, 7.

43. GEORGE W. BUSH 2001-2009

2009-07-21T10:10:00.001+07:00

George W. Bush is the 43rd President of the United States. He was sworn into office on January 20, 2001, re-elected on November 2, 2004, and sworn in for a second term on January 20, 2005. Before his Presidency, he served for 6 years as Governor of the State of Texas.

President Bush was born July 6, 1946, in New Haven, Connecticut, to Barbara and George H.W. Bush – later the 41st President of the United States. In 1948, the family moved to Texas, where President Bush grew up in Midland and Houston. He received a bachelor’s degree in history from Yale University in 1968 and then served as a pilot in the Texas Air National Guard. President Bush received a Master of Business Administration from Harvard Business School in 1975. Following graduation, he moved back to Midland and began a career in the energy business. After working on his father’s successful 1988 Presidential campaign, President Bush assembled a group of partners that purchased the Texas Rangers baseball franchise in 1989.

On November 8, 1994, George W. Bush was elected the 46th Governor of Texas. He became the first Governor in Texas history to be elected to consecutive 4-year terms when he was re-elected on November 3, 1998. In Austin, he earned a reputation for his bipartisan governing approach and his compassionate conservative philosophy, which was based on limited government, personal responsibility, strong families, and local control.

Since his election to the Presidency in 2000, President Bush has worked to extend freedom, opportunity, and security at home and abroad. His first initiative as President was the No Child Left Behind Act, a bipartisan measure that raised standards in schools, insisted on accountability in return for federal dollars, and led to measurable gains in achievement – especially among minority students. Faced with a recession when he took office, President Bush cut taxes for every federal income taxpayer, which helped set off an unprecedented 52 straight months of job creation. And President Bush modernized Medicare by adding a prescription drug benefit, a reform that provided access to needed medicine for 40 million seniors and other beneficiaries.

President Bush also implemented free trade agreements with more than a dozen nations; empowered America’s armies of compassion by creating a new Faith-based and Community Initiative; promoted a culture of life; improved air quality and made America’s energy supply more secure; set aside more ocean resources for environmental protection than any predecessor; transformed the military and nearly doubled government support for veterans; pioneered a new model of partnership in development that tied American foreign aid to reform and good governance; launched a global HIV/AIDS initiative that has spared millions of lives; expanded the NATO alliance; forged a historic new partnership with India; and appointed Chief Justice John Roberts and Justice Samuel Alito to the U.S. Supreme Court.

The most significant event of President Bush’s tenure came on September 11, 2001, when terrorists killed nearly 3,000 people on American soil. President Bush responded with a comprehensive strategy to protect the American people. He led the most dramatic reorganization of the federal government since the beginning of the Cold War, reforming the intelligence community and establishing new institutions like the Department of Homeland Security. He built global coalitions to remove violent regimes in Afghanistan and Iraq that threatened America – liberating more than 50 million people from tyranny. He recognized that freedom and hope are the best alternative to the extremist ideology of the terrorists, so he provided unprecedented American support for young democracies and dissidents in the Middle East and beyond. In the more than seven years after September 11, 2001, the United States was not attacked again.

President Bush is married to Laura Welch Bush, a former teacher and librarian whom he met at a friend’s backyard barbeque. The President and Mrs. Bush have twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna, and a son-in-law, Henry Hager. The Bush family also includes two dogs, Barney and Miss Beazley.

42. WILLIAM J. CLINTON 1993-2001

2009-07-21T10:08:00.001+07:00

During the administration of William Jefferson Clinton, the U.S. enjoyed more peace and economic well being than at any time in its history. He was the first Democratic president since Franklin D. Roosevelt to win a second term. He could point to the lowest unemployment rate in modern times, the lowest inflation in 30 years, the highest home ownership in the country's history, dropping crime rates in many places, and reduced welfare rolls. He proposed the first balanced budget in decades and achieved a budget surplus. As part of a plan to celebrate the millennium in 2000, Clinton called for a great national initiative to end racial discrimination.

After the failure in his second year of a huge program of health care reform, Clinton shifted emphasis, declaring "the era of big government is over." He sought legislation to upgrade education, to protect jobs of parents who must care for sick children, to restrict handgun sales, and to strengthen environmental rules.

President Clinton was born William Jefferson Blythe III on August 19, 1946, in Hope, Arkansas, three months after his father died in a traffic accident. When he was four years old, his mother wed Roger Clinton, of Hot Springs, Arkansas. In high school, he took the family name.

He excelled as a student and as a saxophone player and once considered becoming a professional musician. As a delegate to Boys Nation while in high school, he met President John Kennedy in the White House Rose Garden. The encounter led him to enter a life of public service.

Clinton was graduated from Georgetown University and in 1968 won a Rhodes Scholarship to Oxford University. He received a law degree from Yale University in 1973, and entered politics in Arkansas.

He was defeated in his campaign for Congress in Arkansas's Third District in 1974. The next year he married Hillary Rodham, a graduate of Wellesley College and Yale Law School. In 1980, Chelsea, their only child, was born.

Clinton was elected Arkansas Attorney General in 1976, and won the governorship in 1978. After losing a bid for a second term, he regained the office four years later, and served until he defeated incumbent George Bush and third party candidate Ross Perot in the 1992 presidential race.

Clinton and his running mate, Tennessee's Senator Albert Gore Jr., then 44, represented a new generation in American political leadership. For the first time in 12 years both the White House and Congress were held by the same party. But that political edge was brief; the Republicans won both houses of Congress in 1994.

In 1998, as a result of issues surrounding personal indiscretions with a young woman White House intern, Clinton was the second U.S. president to be impeached by the House of Representatives. He was tried in the Senate and found not guilty of the charges brought against him. He apologized to the nation for his actions and continued to have unprecedented popular approval ratings for his job as president.

In the world, he successfully dispatched peace keeping forces to war-torn Bosnia and bombed Iraq when Saddam Hussein stopped United Nations inspections for evidence of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons. He became a global proponent for an expanded NATO, more open international trade, and a worldwide campaign against drug trafficking. He drew huge crowds when he traveled through South America, Europe, Russia, Africa, and China, advocating U.S. style freedom.

41. GEORGE H.W. BUSH 1989-1993

2009-07-21T09:59:00.000+07:00

George Bush brought to the White House a dedication to traditional American values and a determination to direct them toward making the United States "a kinder and gentler nation." In his Inaugural Address he pledged in "a moment rich with promise" to use American strength as "a force for good."

Coming from a family with a tradition of public service, George Herbert Walker Bush felt the responsibility to make his contribution both in time of war and in peace. Born in Milton, Massachusetts, on June 12, 1924, he became a student leader at Phillips Academy in Andover. On his 18th birthday he enlisted in the armed forces. The youngest pilot in the Navy when he received his wings, he flew 58 combat missions during World War II. On one mission over the Pacific as a torpedo bomber pilot he was shot down by Japanese antiaircraft fire and was rescued from the water by a U. S. submarine. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for bravery in action.

Bush next turned his energies toward completing his education and raising a family. In January 1945 he married Barbara Pierce. They had six children-- George, Robin (who died as a child), John (known as Jeb), Neil, Marvin, and Dorothy.

At Yale University he excelled both in sports and in his studies; he was captain of the baseball team and a member of Phi Beta Kappa. After graduation Bush embarked on a career in the oil industry of West Texas.

Like his father, Prescott Bush, who was elected a Senator from Connecticut in 1952, George became interested in public service and politics. He served two terms as a Representative to Congress from Texas. Twice he ran unsuccessfully for the Senate. Then he was appointed to a series of high-level positions: Ambassador to the United Nations, Chairman of the Republican National Committee, Chief of the U. S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China, and Director of the Central Intelligence Agency.

In 1980 Bush campaigned for the Republican nomination for President. He lost, but was chosen as a running mate by Ronald Reagan. As Vice President, Bush had responsibility in several domestic areas, including Federal deregulation and anti-drug programs, and visited scores of foreign countries. In 1988 Bush won the Republican nomination for President and, with Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana as his running mate, he defeated Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis in the general election.

Bush faced a dramatically changing world, as the Cold War ended after 40 bitter years, the Communist empire broke up, and the Berlin Wall fell. The Soviet Union ceased to exist; and reformist President Mikhail Gorbachev, whom Bush had supported, resigned. While Bush hailed the march of democracy, he insisted on restraint in U. S. policy toward the group of new nations.

In other areas of foreign policy, President Bush sent American troops into Panama to overthrow the corrupt regime of General Manuel Noriega, who was threatening the security of the canal and the Americans living there. Noriega was brought to the United States for trial as a drug trafficker.

Bush's greatest test came when Iraqi President Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait, then threatened to move into Saudi Arabia. Vowing to free Kuwait, Bush rallied the United Nations, the U. S. people, and Congress and sent 425,000 American troops. They were joined by 118,000 troops from allied nations. After weeks of air and missile bombardment, the 100-hour land battle dubbed Desert Storm routed Iraq's million-man army.

Despite unprecedented popularity from this military and diplomatic triumph, Bush was unable to withstand discontent at home from a faltering economy, rising violence in inner cities, and continued high deficit spending. In 1992 he lost his bid for reelection to Democrat William Clinton.

40. RONALD REAGAN 1981-1989

2009-07-21T09:55:00.002+07:00

At the end of his two terms in office, Ronald Reagan viewed with satisfaction the achievements of his innovative program known as the Reagan Revolution, which aimed to reinvigorate the American people and reduce their reliance upon Government. He felt he had fulfilled his campaign pledge of 1980 to restore "the great, confident roar of American progress and growth and optimism."

On February 6, 1911, Ronald Wilson Reagan was born to Nelle and John Reagan in Tampico, Illinois. He attended high school in nearby Dixon and then worked his way through Eureka College. There, he studied economics and sociology, played on the football team, and acted in school plays. Upon graduation, he became a radio sports announcer. A screen test in 1937 won him a contract in Hollywood. During the next two decades he appeared in 53 films.

From his first marriage to actress Jane Wyman, he had two children, Maureen and Michael. Maureen passed away in 2001. In 1952 he married Nancy Davis, who was also an actress, and they had two children, Patricia Ann and Ronald Prescott.

As president of the Screen Actors Guild, Reagan became embroiled in disputes over the issue of Communism in the film industry; his political views shifted from liberal to conservative. He toured the country as a television host, becoming a spokesman for conservatism. In 1966 he was elected Governor of California by a margin of a million votes; he was re-elected in 1970.

Ronald Reagan won the Republican Presidential nomination in 1980 and chose as his running mate former Texas Congressman and United Nations Ambassador George Bush. Voters troubled by inflation and by the year-long confinement of Americans in Iran swept the Republican ticket into office. Reagan won 489 electoral votes to 49 for President Jimmy Carter.

On January 20, 1981, Reagan took office. Only 69 days later he was shot by a would-be assassin, but quickly recovered and returned to duty. His grace and wit during the dangerous incident caused his popularity to soar.

Dealing skillfully with Congress, Reagan obtained legislation to stimulate economic growth, curb inflation, increase employment, and strengthen national defense. He embarked upon a course of cutting taxes and Government expenditures, refusing to deviate from it when the strengthening of defense forces led to a large deficit.

A renewal of national self-confidence by 1984 helped Reagan and Bush win a second term with an unprecedented number of electoral votes. Their victory turned away Democratic challengers Walter F. Mondale and Geraldine Ferraro.

In 1986 Reagan obtained an overhaul of the income tax code, which eliminated many deductions and exempted millions of people with low incomes. At the end of his administration, the Nation was enjoying its longest recorded period of peacetime prosperity without recession or depression.

In foreign policy, Reagan sought to achieve "peace through strength." During his two terms he increased defense spending 35 percent, but sought to improve relations with the Soviet Union. In dramatic meetings with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, he negotiated a treaty that would eliminate intermediate-range nuclear missiles. Reagan declared war against international terrorism, sending American bombers against Libya after evidence came out that Libya was involved in an attack on American soldiers in a West Berlin nightclub.

By ordering naval escorts in the Persian Gulf, he maintained the free flow of oil during the Iran-Iraq war. In keeping with the Reagan Doctrine, he gave support to anti-Communist insurgencies in Central America, Asia, and Africa.

Overall, the Reagan years saw a restoration of prosperity, and the goal of peace through strength seemed to be within grasp.

39. JIMMY CARTER 1977-1981

2009-07-21T09:52:00.001+07:00

Jimmy Carter aspired to make Government "competent and compassionate," responsive to the American people and their expectations. His achievements were notable, but in an era of rising energy costs, mounting inflation, and continuing tensions, it was impossible for his administration to meet these high expectations.

Carter, who has rarely used his full name--James Earl Carter, Jr.--was born October 1, 1924, in Plains, Georgia. Peanut farming, talk of politics, and devotion to the Baptist faith were mainstays of his upbringing. Upon graduation in 1946 from the Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, Carter married Rosalynn Smith. The Carters have three sons, John William (Jack), James Earl III (Chip), Donnel Jeffrey (Jeff), and a daughter, Amy Lynn.

After seven years' service as a naval officer, Carter returned to Plains. In 1962 he entered state politics, and eight years later he was elected Governor of Georgia. Among the new young southern governors, he attracted attention by emphasizing ecology, efficiency in government, and the removal of racial barriers.

Carter announced his candidacy for President in December 1974 and began a two-year campaign that gradually gained momentum. At the Democratic Convention, he was nominated on the first ballot. He chose Senator Walter F. Mondale of Minnesota as his running mate. Carter campaigned hard against President Gerald R. Ford, debating with him three times. Carter won by 297 electoral votes to 241 for Ford.

Carter worked hard to combat the continuing economic woes of inflation and unemployment. By the end of his administration, he could claim an increase of nearly eight million jobs and a decrease in the budget deficit, measured in percentage of the gross national product. Unfortunately, inflation and interest rates were at near record highs, and efforts to reduce them caused a short recession.

Carter could point to a number of achievements in domestic affairs. He dealt with the energy shortage by establishing a national energy policy and by decontrolling domestic petroleum prices to stimulate production. He prompted Government efficiency through civil service reform and proceeded with deregulation of the trucking and airline industries. He sought to improve the environment. His expansion of the national park system included protection of 103 million acres of Alaskan lands. To increase human and social services, he created the Department of Education, bolstered the Social Security system, and appointed record numbers of women, blacks, and Hispanics to Government jobs.

In foreign affairs, Carter set his own style. His championing of human rights was coldly received by the Soviet Union and some other nations. In the Middle East, through the Camp David agreement of 1978, he helped bring amity between Egypt and Israel. He succeeded in obtaining ratification of the Panama Canal treaties. Building upon the work of predecessors, he established full diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China and completed negotiation of the SALT II nuclear limitation treaty with the Soviet Union.

There were serious setbacks, however. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan caused the suspension of plans for ratification of the SALT II pact. The seizure as hostages of the U. S. embassy staff in Iran dominated the news during the last 14 months of the administration. The consequences of Iran's holding Americans captive, together with continuing inflation at home, contributed to Carter's defeat in 1980. Even then, he continued the difficult negotiations over the hostages. Iran finally released the 52 Americans the same day Carter left office.

38. GERALD R. FORD 1974-1977

2009-07-21T09:46:00.001+07:00

When Gerald R. Ford took the oath of office on August 9, 1974, he declared, "I assume the Presidency under extraordinary circumstances.... This is an hour of history that troubles our minds and hurts our hearts."

It was indeed an unprecedented time. He had been the first Vice President chosen under the terms of the Twenty-fifth Amendment and, in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal, was succeeding the first President ever to resign.

Ford was confronted with almost insuperable tasks. There were the challenges of mastering inflation, reviving a depressed economy, solving chronic energy shortages, and trying to ensure world peace.

The President acted to curb the trend toward Government intervention and spending as a means of solving the problems of American society and the economy. In the long run, he believed, this shift would bring a better life for all Americans.

Ford's reputation for integrity and openness had made him popular during his 25 years in Congress. From 1965 to 1973, he was House Minority Leader. Born in Omaha, Nebraska, in 1913, he grew up in Grand Rapids, Michigan. He starred on the University of Michigan football team, then went to Yale, where he served as assistant coach while earning his law degree. During World War II he attained the rank of lieutenant commander in the Navy. After the war he returned to Grand Rapids, where he began the practice of law, and entered Republican politics. A few weeks before his election to Congress in 1948, he married Elizabeth Bloomer. They have four children: Michael, John, Steven, and Susan.

As President, Ford tried to calm earlier controversies by granting former President Nixon a full pardon. His nominee for Vice President, former Governor Nelson Rockefeller of New York, was the second person to fill that office by appointment. Gradually, Ford selected a cabinet of his own.

Ford established his policies during his first year in office, despite opposition from a heavily Democratic Congress. His first goal was to curb inflation. Then, when recession became the Nation's most serious domestic problem, he shifted to measures aimed at stimulating the economy. But, still fearing inflation, Ford vetoed a number of non-military appropriations bills that would have further increased the already heavy budgetary deficit. During his first 14 months as President he vetoed 39 measures. His vetoes were usually sustained.

Ford continued as he had in his Congressional days to view himself as "a moderate in domestic affairs, a conservative in fiscal affairs, and a dyed-in-the-wool internationalist in foreign affairs." A major goal was to help business operate more freely by reducing taxes upon it and easing the controls exercised by regulatory agencies. "We...declared our independence 200 years ago, and we are not about to lose it now to paper shufflers and computers," he said.

In foreign affairs Ford acted vigorously to maintain U. S. power and prestige after the collapse of Cambodia and South Viet Nam. Preventing a new war in the Middle East remained a major objective; by providing aid to both Israel and Egypt, the Ford Administration helped persuade the two countries to accept an interim truce agreement. Detente with the Soviet Union continued. President Ford and Soviet leader Leonid I. Brezhnev set new limitations upon nuclear weapons.

President Ford won the Republican nomination for the Presidency in 1976, but lost the election to his Democratic opponent, former Governor Jimmy Carter of Georgia.

On Inauguration Day, President Carter began his speech: "For myself and for our Nation, I want to thank my predecessor for all he has done to heal our land." A grateful people concurred.

37. RICHARD M. NIXON 1969-1974

2009-07-21T09:42:00.001+07:00

Reconciliation was the first goal set by President Richard M. Nixon. The Nation was painfully divided, with turbulence in the cities and war overseas. During his Presidency, Nixon succeeded in ending American fighting in Viet Nam and improving relations with the U.S.S.R. and China. But the Watergate scandal brought fresh divisions to the country and ultimately led to his resignation.

His election in 1968 had climaxed a career unusual on two counts: his early success and his comeback after being defeated for President in 1960 and for Governor of California in 1962.

Born in California in 1913, Nixon had a brilliant record at Whittier College and Duke University Law School before beginning the practice of law. In 1940, he married Patricia Ryan; they had two daughters, Patricia (Tricia) and Julie. During World War II, Nixon served as a Navy lieutenant commander in the Pacific.

On leaving the service, he was elected to Congress from his California district. In 1950, he won a Senate seat. Two years later, General Eisenhower selected Nixon, age 39, to be his running mate.

As Vice President, Nixon took on major duties in the Eisenhower Administration. Nominated for President by acclamation in 1960, he lost by a narrow margin to John F. Kennedy. In 1968, he again won his party's nomination, and went on to defeat Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey and third-party candidate George C. Wallace.

His accomplishments while in office included revenue sharing, the end of the draft, new anticrime laws, and a broad environmental program. As he had promised, he appointed Justices of conservative philosophy to the Supreme Court. One of the most dramatic events of his first term occurred in 1969, when American astronauts made the first moon landing.

Some of his most acclaimed achievements came in his quest for world stability. During visits in 1972 to Beijing and Moscow, he reduced tensions with China and the U.S.S.R. His summit meetings with Russian leader Leonid I. Brezhnev produced a treaty to limit strategic nuclear weapons. In January 1973, he announced an accord with North Viet Nam to end American involvement in Indochina. In 1974, his Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, negotiated disengagement agreements between Israel and its opponents, Egypt and Syria.

In his 1972 bid for office, Nixon defeated Democratic candidate George McGovern by one of the widest margins on record.

Within a few months, his administration was embattled over the so-called "Watergate" scandal, stemming from a break-in at the offices of the Democratic National Committee during the 1972 campaign. The break-in was traced to officials of the Committee to Re-elect the President. A number of administration officials resigned; some were later convicted of offenses connected with efforts to cover up the affair. Nixon denied any personal involvement, but the courts forced him to yield tape recordings which indicated that he had, in fact, tried to divert the investigation.

As a result of unrelated scandals in Maryland, Vice President Spiro T. Agnew resigned in 1973. Nixon nominated, and Congress approved, House Minority Leader Gerald R. Ford as Vice President.

Faced with what seemed almost certain impeachment, Nixon announced on August 8, 1974, that he would resign the next day to begin "that process of healing which is so desperately needed in America."

In his last years, Nixon gained praise as an elder statesman. By the time of his death on April 22, 1994, he had written numerous books on his experiences in public life and on foreign policy.

36. LYNDON B. JOHNSON 1963-1969

2009-07-21T09:37:00.001+07:00

"A Great Society" for the American people and their fellow men elsewhere was the vision of Lyndon B. Johnson. In his first years of office he obtained passage of one of the most extensive legislative programs in the Nation's history. Maintaining collective security, he carried on the rapidly growing struggle to restrain Communist encroachment in Viet Nam.

Johnson was born on August 27, 1908, in central Texas, not far from Johnson City, which his family had helped settle. He felt the pinch of rural poverty as he grew up, working his way through Southwest Texas State Teachers College (now known as Texas State University-San Marcos); he learned compassion for the poverty of others when he taught students of Mexican descent.

In 1937 he campaigned successfully for the House of Representatives on a New Deal platform, effectively aided by his wife, the former Claudia "Lady Bird" Taylor, whom he had married in 1934.

During World War II he served briefly in the Navy as a lieutenant commander, winning a Silver Star in the South Pacific. After six terms in the House, Johnson was elected to the Senate in 1948. In 1953, he became the youngest Minority Leader in Senate history, and the following year, when the Democrats won control, Majority Leader. With rare skill he obtained passage of a number of key Eisenhower measures.

In the 1960 campaign, Johnson, as John F. Kennedy's running mate, was elected Vice President. On November 22, 1963, when Kennedy was assassinated, Johnson was sworn in as President.

First he obtained enactment of the measures President Kennedy had been urging at the time of his death--a new civil rights bill and a tax cut. Next he urged the Nation "to build a great society, a place where the meaning of man's life matches the marvels of man's labor." In 1964, Johnson won the Presidency with 61 percent of the vote and had the widest popular margin in American history--more than 15,000,000 votes.

The Great Society program became Johnson's agenda for Congress in January 1965: aid to education, attack on disease, Medicare, urban renewal, beautification, conservation, development of depressed regions, a wide-scale fight against poverty, control and prevention of crime and delinquency, removal of obstacles to the right to vote. Congress, at times augmenting or amending, rapidly enacted Johnson's recommendations. Millions of elderly people found succor through the 1965 Medicare amendment to the Social Security Act.

Under Johnson, the country made spectacular explorations of space in a program he had championed since its start. When three astronauts successfully orbited the moon in December 1968, Johnson congratulated them: "You've taken ... all of us, all over the world, into a new era. . . . "

Nevertheless, two overriding crises had been gaining momentum since 1965. Despite the beginning of new antipoverty and anti-discrimination programs, unrest and rioting in black ghettos troubled the Nation. President Johnson steadily exerted his influence against segregation and on behalf of law and order, but there was no early solution.

The other crisis arose from Viet Nam. Despite Johnson's efforts to end Communist aggression and achieve a settlement, fighting continued. Controversy over the war had become acute by the end of March 1968, when he limited the bombing of North Viet Nam in order to initiate negotiations. At the same time, he startled the world by withdrawing as a candidate for re-election so that he might devote his full efforts, unimpeded by politics, to the quest for peace.

When he left office, peace talks were under way; he did not live to see them successful, but died suddenly of a heart attack at his Texas ranch on January 22, 1973.

35. JOHN F. KENNEDY 1961-1963

2009-07-21T09:34:00.001+07:00

On November 22, 1963, when he was hardly past his first thousand days in office, John Fitzgerald Kennedy was killed by an assassin's bullets as his motorcade wound through Dallas, Texas. Kennedy was the youngest man elected President; he was the youngest to die.

Of Irish descent, he was born in Brookline, Massachusetts, on May 29, 1917. Graduating from Harvard in 1940, he entered the Navy. In 1943, when his PT boat was rammed and sunk by a Japanese destroyer, Kennedy, despite grave injuries, led the survivors through perilous waters to safety.

Back from the war, he became a Democratic Congressman from the Boston area, advancing in 1953 to the Senate. He married Jacqueline Bouvier on September 12, 1953. In 1955, while recuperating from a back operation, he wrote Profiles in Courage, which won the Pulitzer Prize in history.

In 1956 Kennedy almost gained the Democratic nomination for Vice President, and four years later was a first-ballot nominee for President. Millions watched his television debates with the Republican candidate, Richard M. Nixon. Winning by a narrow margin in the popular vote, Kennedy became the first Roman Catholic President.

His Inaugural Address offered the memorable injunction: "Ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country." As President, he set out to redeem his campaign pledge to get America moving again. His economic programs launched the country on its longest sustained expansion since World War II; before his death, he laid plans for a massive assault on persisting pockets of privation and poverty.

Responding to ever more urgent demands, he took vigorous action in the cause of equal rights, calling for new civil rights legislation. His vision of America extended to the quality of the national culture and the central role of the arts in a vital society.

He wished America to resume its old mission as the first nation dedicated to the revolution of human rights. With the Alliance for Progress and the Peace Corps, he brought American idealism to the aid of developing nations. But the hard reality of the Communist challenge remained.

Shortly after his inauguration, Kennedy permitted a band of Cuban exiles, already armed and trained, to invade their homeland. The attempt to overthrow the regime of Fidel Castro was a failure. Soon thereafter, the Soviet Union renewed its campaign against West Berlin. Kennedy replied by reinforcing the Berlin garrison and increasing the Nation's military strength, including new efforts in outer space. Confronted by this reaction, Moscow, after the erection of the Berlin Wall, relaxed its pressure in central Europe.

Instead, the Russians now sought to install nuclear missiles in Cuba. When this was discovered by air reconnaissance in October 1962, Kennedy imposed a quarantine on all offensive weapons bound for Cuba. While the world trembled on the brink of nuclear war, the Russians backed down and agreed to take the missiles away. The American response to the Cuban crisis evidently persuaded Moscow of the futility of nuclear blackmail.

Kennedy now contended that both sides had a vital interest in stopping the spread of nuclear weapons and slowing the arms race--a contention which led to the test ban treaty of 1963. The months after the Cuban crisis showed significant progress toward his goal of "a world of law and free choice, banishing the world of war and coercion." His administration thus saw the beginning of new hope for both the equal rights of Americans and the peace of the world.

34. DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER 1953-1961

2009-07-21T09:28:00.001+07:00

Bringing to the Presidency his prestige as commanding general of the victorious forces in Europe during World War II, Dwight D. Eisenhower obtained a truce in Korea and worked incessantly during his two terms to ease the tensions of the Cold War. He pursued the moderate policies of "Modern Republicanism," pointing out as he left office, "America is today the strongest, most influential, and most productive nation in the world."

Born in Texas in 1890, brought up in Abilene, Kansas, Eisenhower was the third of seven sons. He excelled in sports in high school, and received an appointment to West Point. Stationed in Texas as a second lieutenant, he met Mamie Geneva Doud, whom he married in 1916.

In his early Army career, he excelled in staff assignments, serving under Generals John J. Pershing, Douglas MacArthur, and Walter Krueger. After Pearl Harbor, General George C. Marshall called him to Washington for a war plans assignment. He commanded the Allied Forces landing in North Africa in November 1942; on D-Day, 1944, he was Supreme Commander of the troops invading France.

After the war, he became President of Columbia University, then took leave to assume supreme command over the new NATO forces being assembled in 1951. Republican emissaries to his headquarters near Paris persuaded him to run for President in 1952.

"I like Ike" was an irresistible slogan; Eisenhower won a sweeping victory.

Negotiating from military strength, he tried to reduce the strains of the Cold War. In 1953, the signing of a truce brought an armed peace along the border of South Korea. The death of Stalin the same year caused shifts in relations with Russia.

New Russian leaders consented to a peace treaty neutralizing Austria. Meanwhile, both Russia and the United States had developed hydrogen bombs. With the threat of such destructive force hanging over the world, Eisenhower, with the leaders of the British, French, and Russian governments, met at Geneva in July 1955.

The President proposed that the United States and Russia exchange blueprints of each other's military establishments and "provide within our countries facilities for aerial photography to the other country." The Russians greeted the proposal with silence, but were so cordial throughout the meetings that tensions relaxed.

Suddenly, in September 1955, Eisenhower suffered a heart attack in Denver, Colorado. After seven weeks he left the hospital, and in February 1956 doctors reported his recovery. In November he was elected for his second term.

In domestic policy the President pursued a middle course, continuing most of the New Deal and Fair Deal programs, emphasizing a balanced budget. As desegregation of schools began, he sent troops into Little Rock, Arkansas, to assure compliance with the orders of a Federal court; he also ordered the complete desegregation of the Armed Forces. "There must be no second class citizens in this country," he wrote.

Eisenhower concentrated on maintaining world peace. He watched with pleasure the development of his "atoms for peace" program--the loan of American uranium to "have not" nations for peaceful purposes.

Before he left office in January 1961, for his farm in Gettysburg, he urged the necessity of maintaining an adequate military strength, but cautioned that vast, long-continued military expenditures could breed potential dangers to our way of life. He concluded with a prayer for peace "in the goodness of time." Both themes remained timely and urgent when he died, after a long illness, on March 28, 1969.

33. HARRY S. TRUMAN 1945-1953

2009-07-05T10:04:00.001+07:00

During his few weeks as Vice President, Harry S Truman scarcely saw President Roosevelt, and received no briefing on the development of the atomic bomb or the unfolding difficulties with Soviet Russia. Suddenly these and a host of other wartime problems became Truman's to solve when, on April 12, 1945, he became President. He told reporters, "I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me."

Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, in 1884. He grew up in Independence, and for 12 years prospered as a Missouri farmer.

He went to France during World War I as a captain in the Field Artillery. Returning, he married Elizabeth Virginia Wallace, and opened a haberdashery in Kansas City.

Active in the Democratic Party, Truman was elected a judge of the Jackson County Court (an administrative position) in 1922. He became a Senator in 1934. During World War II he headed the Senate war investigating committee, checking into waste and corruption and saving perhaps as much as 15 billion dollars.

As President, Truman made some of the most crucial decisions in history. Soon after V-E Day, the war against Japan had reached its final stage. An urgent plea to Japan to surrender was rejected. Truman, after consultations with his advisers, ordered atomic bombs dropped on cities devoted to war work. Two were Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japanese surrender quickly followed.

In June 1945 Truman witnessed the signing of the charter of the United Nations, hopefully established to preserve peace.

Thus far, he had followed his predecessor's policies, but he soon developed his own. He presented to Congress a 21-point program, proposing the expansion of Social Security, a full-employment program, a permanent Fair Employment Practices Act, and public housing and slum clearance. The program, Truman wrote, "symbolizes for me my assumption of the office of President in my own right." It became known as the Fair Deal.

Dangers and crises marked the foreign scene as Truman campaigned successfully in 1948. In foreign affairs he was already providing his most effective leadership.

In 1947 as the Soviet Union pressured Turkey and, through guerrillas, threatened to take over Greece, he asked Congress to aid the two countries, enunciating the program that bears his name--the Truman Doctrine. The Marshall Plan, named for his Secretary of State, stimulated spectacular economic recovery in war-torn western Europe.

When the Russians blockaded the western sectors of Berlin in 1948, Truman created a massive airlift to supply Berliners until the Russians backed down. Meanwhile, he was negotiating a military alliance to protect Western nations, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, established in 1949.

In June 1950, when the Communist government of North Korea attacked South Korea, Truman conferred promptly with his military advisers. There was, he wrote, "complete, almost unspoken acceptance on the part of everyone that whatever had to be done to meet this aggression had to be done. There was no suggestion from anyone that either the United Nations or the United States could back away from it."

A long, discouraging struggle ensued as U.N. forces held a line above the old boundary of South Korea. Truman kept the war a limited one, rather than risk a major conflict with China and perhaps Russia.

Deciding not to run again, he retired to Independence; at age 88, he died December 26, 1972, after a stubborn fight for life.

32. FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT 1933-1945

2009-07-05T09:59:00.002+07:00

Assuming the Presidency at the depth of the Great Depression, Franklin D. Roosevelt helped the American people regain faith in themselves. He brought hope as he promised prompt, vigorous action, and asserted in his Inaugural Address, "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself."

Born in 1882 at Hyde Park, New York--now a national historic site--he attended Harvard University and Columbia Law School. On St. Patrick's Day, 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt.

Following the example of his fifth cousin, President Theodore Roosevelt, whom he greatly admired, Franklin D. Roosevelt entered public service through politics, but as a Democrat. He won election to the New York Senate in 1910. President Wilson appointed him Assistant Secretary of the Navy, and he was the Democratic nominee for Vice President in 1920.

In the summer of 1921, when he was 39, disaster hit-he was stricken with poliomyelitis. Demonstrating indomitable courage, he fought to regain the use of his legs, particularly through swimming. At the 1924 Democratic Convention he dramatically appeared on crutches to nominate Alfred E. Smith as "the Happy Warrior." In 1928 Roosevelt became Governor of New York.

He was elected President in November 1932, to the first of four terms. By March there were 13,000,000 unemployed, and almost every bank was closed. In his first "hundred days," he proposed, and Congress enacted, a sweeping program to bring recovery to business and agriculture, relief to the unemployed and to those in danger of losing farms and homes, and reform, especially through the establishment of the Tennessee Valley Authority.

By 1935 the Nation had achieved some measure of recovery, but businessmen and bankers were turning more and more against Roosevelt's New Deal program. They feared his experiments, were appalled because he had taken the Nation off the gold standard and allowed deficits in the budget, and disliked the concessions to labor. Roosevelt responded with a new program of reform: Social Security, heavier taxes on the wealthy, new controls over banks and public utilities, and an enormous work relief program for the unemployed.

In 1936 he was re-elected by a top-heavy margin. Feeling he was armed with a popular mandate, he sought legislation to enlarge the Supreme Court, which had been invalidating key New Deal measures. Roosevelt lost the Supreme Court battle, but a revolution in constitutional law took place. Thereafter the Government could legally regulate the economy.

Roosevelt had pledged the United States to the "good neighbor" policy, transforming the Monroe Doctrine from a unilateral American manifesto into arrangements for mutual action against aggressors. He also sought through neutrality legislation to keep the United States out of the war in Europe, yet at the same time to strengthen nations threatened or attacked. When France fell and England came under siege in 1940, he began to send Great Britain all possible aid short of actual military involvement.

When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Roosevelt directed organization of the Nation's manpower and resources for global war.

Feeling that the future peace of the world would depend upon relations between the United States and Russia, he devoted much thought to the planning of a United Nations, in which, he hoped, international difficulties could be settled.

As the war drew to a close, Roosevelt's health deteriorated, and on April 12, 1945, while at Warm Springs, Georgia, he died of a cerebral hemorrhage.

31. HERBERT HOOVER 1929-1933

2009-07-05T09:51:00.001+07:00

Son of a Quaker blacksmith, Herbert Clark Hoover brought to the Presidency an unparalleled reputation for public service as an engineer, administrator, and humanitarian.

Born in an Iowa village in 1874, he grew up in Oregon. He enrolled at Stanford University when it opened in 1891, graduating as a mining engineer.

He married his Stanford sweetheart, Lou Henry, and they went to China, where he worked for a private corporation as China's leading engineer. In June 1900 the Boxer Rebellion caught the Hoovers in Tientsin. For almost a month the settlement was under heavy fire. While his wife worked in the hospitals, Hoover directed the building of barricades, and once risked his life rescuing Chinese children.

One week before Hoover celebrated his 40th birthday in London, Germany declared war on France, and the American Consul General asked his help in getting stranded tourists home. In six weeks his committee helped 120,000 Americans return to the United States. Next Hoover turned to a far more difficult task, to feed Belgium, which had been overrun by the German army.

After the United States entered the war, President Wilson appointed Hoover head of the Food Administration. He succeeded in cutting consumption of foods needed overseas and avoided rationing at home, yet kept the Allies fed.

After the Armistice, Hoover, a member of the Supreme Economic Council and head of the American Relief Administration, organized shipments of food for starving millions in central Europe. He extended aid to famine-stricken Soviet Russia in 1921. When a critic inquired if he was not thus helping Bolshevism, Hoover retorted, "Twenty million people are starving. Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!"

After capably serving as Secretary of Commerce under Presidents Harding and Coolidge, Hoover became the Republican Presidential nominee in 1928. He said then: "We in America today are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any land." His election seemed to ensure prosperity. Yet within months the stock market crashed, and the Nation spiraled downward into depression.

After the crash Hoover announced that while he would keep the Federal budget balanced, he would cut taxes and expand public works spending.

In 1931 repercussions from Europe deepened the crisis, even though the President presented to Congress a program asking for creation of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to aid business, additional help for farmers facing mortgage foreclosures, banking reform, a loan to states for feeding the unemployed, expansion of public works, and drastic governmental economy.

At the same time he reiterated his view that while people must not suffer from hunger and cold, caring for them must be primarily a local and voluntary responsibility.

His opponents in Congress, who he felt were sabotaging his program for their own political gain, unfairly painted him as a callous and cruel President. Hoover became the scapegoat for the depression and was badly defeated in 1932. In the 1930's he became a powerful critic of the New Deal, warning against tendencies toward statism.

In 1947 President Truman appointed Hoover to a commission, which elected him chairman, to reorganize the Executive Departments. He was appointed chairman of a similar commission by President Eisenhower in 1953. Many economies resulted from both commissions' recommendations. Over the years, Hoover wrote many articles and books, one of which he was working on when he died at 90 in New York City on October 20, 1964.

30. CALVIN COOLIDGE 1923-1929

2009-07-05T09:49:00.002+07:00

At 2:30 on the morning of August 3, 1923, while visiting in Vermont, Calvin Coolidge received word that he was President. By the light of a kerosene lamp, his father, who was a notary public, administered the oath of office as Coolidge placed his hand on the family Bible.

Coolidge was "distinguished for character more than for heroic achievement," wrote a Democratic admirer, Alfred E. Smith. "His great task was to restore the dignity and prestige of the Presidency when it had reached the lowest ebb in our history ... in a time of extravagance and waste...."

Born in Plymouth, Vermont, on July 4, 1872, Coolidge was the son of a village storekeeper. He was graduated from Amherst College with honors, and entered law and politics in Northampton, Massachusetts. Slowly, methodically, he went up the political ladder from councilman in Northampton to Governor of Massachusetts, as a Republican. En route he became thoroughly conservative.

As President, Coolidge demonstrated his determination to preserve the old moral and economic precepts amid the material prosperity which many Americans were enjoying. He refused to use Federal economic power to check the growing boom or to ameliorate the depressed condition of agriculture and certain industries. His first message to Congress in December 1923 called for isolation in foreign policy, and for tax cuts, economy, and limited aid to farmers.

He rapidly became popular. In 1924, as the beneficiary of what was becoming known as "Coolidge prosperity," he polled more than 54 percent of the popular vote.

In his Inaugural he asserted that the country had achieved "a state of contentment seldom before seen," and pledged himself to maintain the status quo. In subsequent years he twice vetoed farm relief bills, and killed a plan to produce cheap Federal electric power on the Tennessee River.

The political genius of President Coolidge, Walter Lippmann pointed out in 1926, was his talent for effectively doing nothing: "This active inactivity suits the mood and certain of the needs of the country admirably. It suits all the business interests which want to be let alone.... And it suits all those who have become convinced that government in this country has become dangerously complicated and top-heavy...."

Coolidge was both the most negative and remote of Presidents, and the most accessible. He once explained to Bernard Baruch why he often sat silently through interviews: "Well, Baruch, many times I say only 'yes' or 'no' to people. Even that is too much. It winds them up for twenty minutes more."

But no President was kinder in permitting himself to be photographed in Indian war bonnets or cowboy dress, and in greeting a variety of delegations to the White House.

Both his dry Yankee wit and his frugality with words became legendary. His wife, Grace Goodhue Coolidge, recounted that a young woman sitting next to Coolidge at a dinner party confided to him she had bet she could get at least three words of conversation from him. Without looking at her he quietly retorted, "You lose." And in 1928, while vacationing in the Black Hills of South Dakota, he issued the most famous of his laconic statements, "I do not choose to run for President in 1928."

By the time the disaster of the Great Depression hit the country, Coolidge was in retirement. Before his death in January 1933, he confided to an old friend, ". . . I feel I no longer fit in with these times."

29. WARREN G. HARDING 1921-1923

2009-07-05T09:46:00.002+07:00

Before his nomination, Warren G. Harding declared, "America's present need is not heroics, but healing; not nostrums, but normalcy; not revolution, but restoration; not agitation, but adjustment; not surgery, but serenity; not the dramatic, but the dispassionate; not experiment, but equipoise; not submergence in internationality, but sustainment in triumphant nationality...."

A Democratic leader, William Gibbs McAdoo, called Harding's speeches "an army of pompous phrases moving across the landscape in search of an idea." Their very murkiness was effective, since Harding's pronouncements remained unclear on the League of Nations, in contrast to the impassioned crusade of the Democratic candidates, Governor James M. Cox of Ohio and Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Thirty-one distinguished Republicans had signed a manifesto assuring voters that a vote for Harding was a vote for the League. But Harding interpreted his election as a mandate to stay out of the League of Nations.

Harding, born near Marion, Ohio, in 1865, became the publisher of a newspaper. He married a divorcee, Mrs. Florence Kling De Wolfe. He was a trustee of the Trinity Baptist Church, a director of almost every important business, and a leader in fraternal organizations and charitable enterprises.

He organized the Citizen's Cornet Band, available for both Republican and Democratic rallies; "I played every instrument but the slide trombone and the E-flat cornet," he once remarked.

Harding's undeviating Republicanism and vibrant speaking voice, plus his willingness to let the machine bosses set policies, led him far in Ohio politics. He served in the state Senate and as Lieutenant Governor, and unsuccessfully ran for Governor. He delivered the nominating address for President Taft at the 1912 Republican Convention. In 1914 he was elected to the Senate, which he found "a very pleasant place."

An Ohio admirer, Harry Daugherty, began to promote Harding for the 1920 Republican nomination because, he later explained, "He looked like a President."

Thus a group of Senators, taking control of the 1920 Republican Convention when the principal candidates deadlocked, turned to Harding. He won the Presidential election by an unprecedented landslide of 60 percent of the popular vote.

Republicans in Congress easily got the President's signature on their bills. They eliminated wartime controls and slashed taxes, established a Federal budget system, restored the high protective tariff, and imposed tight limitations upon immigration.

By 1923 the postwar depression seemed to be giving way to a new surge of prosperity, and newspapers hailed Harding as a wise statesman carrying out his campaign promise--"Less government in business and more business in government."

Behind the facade, not all of Harding's Administration was so impressive. Word began to reach the President that some of his friends were using their official positions for their own enrichment. Alarmed, he complained, "My...friends...they're the ones that keep me walking the floors nights!"

Looking wan and depressed, Harding journeyed westward in the summer of 1923, taking with him his upright Secretary of Commerce, Herbert Hoover. "If you knew of a great scandal in our administration," he asked Hoover, "would you for the good of the country and the party expose it publicly or would you bury it?" Hoover urged publishing it, but Harding feared the political repercussions.

He did not live to find out how the public would react to the scandals of his administration. In August of 1923, he died in San Francisco of a heart attack.

28. WOODROW WILSON 1913-1921

2009-07-05T09:45:00.000+07:00

Like Roosevelt before him, Woodrow Wilson regarded himself as the personal representative of the people. "No one but the President," he said, "seems to be expected ... to look out for the general interests of the country." He developed a program of progressive reform and asserted international leadership in building a new world order. In 1917 he proclaimed American entrance into World War I a crusade to make the world "safe for democracy."

Wilson had seen the frightfulness of war. He was born in Virginia in 1856, the son of a Presbyterian minister who during the Civil War was a pastor in Augusta, Georgia, and during Reconstruction a professor in the charred city of Columbia, South Carolina.

After graduation from Princeton (then the College of New Jersey) and the University of Virginia Law School, Wilson earned his doctorate at Johns Hopkins University and entered upon an academic career. In 1885 he married Ellen Louise Axson.

Wilson advanced rapidly as a conservative young professor of political science and became president of Princeton in 1902.

His growing national reputation led some conservative Democrats to consider him Presidential timber. First they persuaded him to run for Governor of New Jersey in 1910. In the campaign he asserted his independence of the conservatives and of the machine that had nominated him, endorsing a progressive platform, which he pursued as governor.

He was nominated for President at the 1912 Democratic Convention and campaigned on a program called the New Freedom, which stressed individualism and states' rights. In the three-way election he received only 42 percent of the popular vote but an overwhelming electoral vote.

Wilson maneuvered through Congress three major pieces of legislation. The first was a lower tariff, the Underwood Act; attached to the measure was a graduated Federal income tax. The passage of the Federal Reserve Act provided the Nation with the more elastic money supply it badly needed. In 1914 antitrust legislation established a Federal Trade Commission to prohibit unfair business practices.

Another burst of legislation followed in 1916. One new law prohibited child labor; another limited railroad workers to an eight-hour day. By virtue of this legislation and the slogan "he kept us out of war," Wilson narrowly won re-election.

But after the election Wilson concluded that America could not remain neutral in the World War. On April 2,1917, he asked Congress for a declaration of war on Germany.

Massive American effort slowly tipped the balance in favor of the Allies. Wilson went before Congress in January 1918, to enunciate American war aims--the Fourteen Points, the last of which would establish "A general association of nations...affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike."

After the Germans signed the Armistice in November 1918, Wilson went to Paris to try to build an enduring peace. He later presented to the Senate the Versailles Treaty, containing the Covenant of the League of Nations, and asked, "Dare we reject it and break the heart of the world?"

But the election of 1918 had shifted the balance in Congress to the Republicans. By seven votes the Versailles Treaty failed in the Senate.

The President, against the warnings of his doctors, had made a national tour to mobilize public sentiment for the treaty. Exhausted, he suffered a stroke and nearly died. Tenderly nursed by his second wife, Edith Bolling Galt, he lived until 1924.

27. WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT 1909-1913

2009-07-05T09:27:00.001+07:00

Distinguished jurist, effective administrator, but poor politician, William Howard Taft spent four uncomfortable years in the White House. Large, jovial, conscientious, he was caught in the intense battles between Progressives and conservatives, and got scant credit for the achievements of his administration.

Born in 1857, the son of a distinguished judge, he graduated from Yale, and returned to Cincinnati to study and practice law. He rose in politics through Republican judiciary appointments, through his own competence and availability, and because, as he once wrote facetiously, he always had his "plate the right side up when offices were falling."

But Taft much preferred law to politics. He was appointed a Federal circuit judge at 34. He aspired to be a member of the Supreme Court, but his wife, Helen Herron Taft, held other ambitions for him.

His route to the White House was via administrative posts. President McKinley sent him to the Philippines in 1900 as chief civil administrator. Sympathetic toward the Filipinos, he improved the economy, built roads and schools, and gave the people at least some participation in government.

President Roosevelt made him Secretary of War, and by 1907 had decided that Taft should be his successor. The Republican Convention nominated him the next year.

Taft disliked the campaign--"one of the most uncomfortable four months of my life." But he pledged his loyalty to the Roosevelt program, popular in the West, while his brother Charles reassured eastern Republicans. William Jennings Bryan, running on the Democratic ticket for a third time, complained that he was having to oppose two candidates, a western progressive Taft and an eastern conservative Taft.

Progressives were pleased with Taft's election. "Roosevelt has cut enough hay," they said; "Taft is the man to put it into the barn." Conservatives were delighted to be rid of Roosevelt--the "mad messiah."

Taft recognized that his techniques would differ from those of his predecessor. Unlike Roosevelt, Taft did not believe in the stretching of Presidential powers. He once commented that Roosevelt "ought more often to have admitted the legal way of reaching the same ends."

Taft alienated many liberal Republicans who later formed the Progressive Party, by defending the Payne-Aldrich Act which unexpectedly continued high tariff rates. A trade agreement with Canada, which Taft pushed through Congress, would have pleased eastern advocates of a low tariff, but the Canadians rejected it. He further antagonized Progressives by upholding his Secretary of the Interior, accused of failing to carry out Roosevelt's conservation policies.

In the angry Progressive onslaught against him, little attention was paid to the fact that his administration initiated 80 antitrust suits and that Congress submitted to the states amendments for a Federal income tax and the direct election of Senators. A postal savings system was established, and the Interstate Commerce Commission was directed to set railroad rates.

In 1912, when the Republicans renominated Taft, Roosevelt bolted the party to lead the Progressives, thus guaranteeing the election of Woodrow Wilson.

Taft, free of the Presidency, served as Professor of Law at Yale until President Harding made him Chief Justice of the United States, a position he held until just before his death in 1930. To Taft, the appointment was his greatest honor; he wrote: "I don't remember that I ever was President."

26. THEODORE ROOSEVELT 1901-1909

2009-07-05T09:24:00.002+07:00

With the assassination of President McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, not quite 43, became the youngest President in the Nation's history. He brought new excitement and power to the Presidency, as he vigorously led Congress and the American public toward progressive reforms and a strong foreign policy.

He took the view that the President as a "steward of the people" should take whatever action necessary for the public good unless expressly forbidden by law or the Constitution." I did not usurp power," he wrote, "but I did greatly broaden the use of executive power."

Roosevelt's youth differed sharply from that of the log cabin Presidents. He was born in New York City in 1858 into a wealthy family, but he too struggled--against ill health--and in his triumph became an advocate of the strenuous life.

In 1884 his first wife, Alice Lee Roosevelt, and his mother died on the same day. Roosevelt spent much of the next two years on his ranch in the Badlands of Dakota Territory. There he mastered his sorrow as he lived in the saddle, driving cattle, hunting big game--he even captured an outlaw. On a visit to London, he married Edith Carow in December 1886.

During the Spanish-American War, Roosevelt was lieutenant colonel of the Rough Rider Regiment, which he led on a charge at the battle of San Juan. He was one of the most conspicuous heroes of the war.

Boss Tom Platt, needing a hero to draw attention away from scandals in New York State, accepted Roosevelt as the Republican candidate for Governor in 1898. Roosevelt won and served with distinction.

As President, Roosevelt held the ideal that the Government should be the great arbiter of the conflicting economic forces in the Nation, especially between capital and labor, guaranteeing justice to each and dispensing favors to none.

Roosevelt emerged spectacularly as a "trust buster" by forcing the dissolution of a great railroad combination in the Northwest. Other antitrust suits under the Sherman Act followed.

Roosevelt steered the United States more actively into world politics. He liked to quote a favorite proverb, "Speak softly and carry a big stick. . . . "

Aware of the strategic need for a shortcut between the Atlantic and Pacific, Roosevelt ensured the construction of the Panama Canal. His corollary to the Monroe Doctrine prevented the establishment of foreign bases in the Caribbean and arrogated the sole right of intervention in Latin America to the United States.

He won the Nobel Peace Prize for mediating the Russo-Japanese War, reached a Gentleman's Agreement on immigration with Japan, and sent the Great White Fleet on a goodwill tour of the world.

Some of Theodore Roosevelt's most effective achievements were in conservation. He added enormously to the national forests in the West, reserved lands for public use, and fostered great irrigation projects.

He crusaded endlessly on matters big and small, exciting audiences with his high-pitched voice, jutting jaw, and pounding fist. "The life of strenuous endeavor" was a must for those around him, as he romped with his five younger children and led ambassadors on hikes through Rock Creek Park in Washington, D.C.

Leaving the Presidency in 1909, Roosevelt went on an African safari, then jumped back into politics. In 1912 he ran for President on a Progressive ticket. To reporters he once remarked that he felt as fit as a bull moose, the name of his new party.

While campaigning in Milwaukee, he was shot in the chest by a fanatic. Roosevelt soon recovered, but his words at that time would have been applicable at the time of his death in 1919: "No man has had a happier life than I have led; a happier life in every way."

25. WILLIAM MCKINLEY 1897-1901

2009-07-05T09:05:00.000+07:00

At the 1896 Republican Convention, in time of depression, the wealthy Cleveland businessman Marcus Alonzo Hanna ensured the nomination of his friend William McKinley as "the advance agent of prosperity." The Democrats, advocating the "free and unlimited coinage of both silver and gold"--which would have mildly inflated the currency--nominated William Jennings Bryan.

While Hanna used large contributions from eastern Republicans frightened by Bryan's views on silver, McKinley met delegations on his front porch in Canton, Ohio. He won by the largest majority of popular votes since 1872.

Born in Niles, Ohio, in 1843, McKinley briefly attended Allegheny College, and was teaching in a country school when the Civil War broke out. Enlisting as a private in the Union Army, he was mustered out at the end of the war as a brevet major of volunteers. He studied law, opened an office in Canton, Ohio, and married Ida Saxton, daughter of a local banker.

At 34, McKinley won a seat in Congress. His attractive personality, exemplary character, and quick intelligence enabled him to rise rapidly. He was appointed to the powerful Ways and Means Committee. Robert M. La Follette, Sr., who served with him, recalled that he generally "represented the newer view," and "on the great new questions .. was generally on the side of the public and against private interests."

During his 14 years in the House, he became the leading Republican tariff expert, giving his name to the measure enacted in 1890. The next year he was elected Governor of Ohio, serving two terms.

When McKinley became President, the depression of 1893 had almost run its course and with it the extreme agitation over silver. Deferring action on the money question, he called Congress into special session to enact the highest tariff in history.

In the friendly atmosphere of the McKinley Administration, industrial combinations developed at an unprecedented pace. Newspapers caricatured McKinley as a little boy led around by "Nursie" Hanna, the representative of the trusts. However, McKinley was not dominated by Hanna; he condemned the trusts as "dangerous conspiracies against the public good."

Not prosperity, but foreign policy, dominated McKinley's Administration. Reporting the stalemate between Spanish forces and revolutionaries in Cuba, newspapers screamed that a quarter of the population was dead and the rest suffering acutely. Public indignation brought pressure upon the President for war. Unable to restrain Congress or the American people, McKinley delivered his message of neutral intervention in April 1898. Congress thereupon voted three resolutions tantamount to a declaration of war for the liberation and independence of Cuba.

In the 100-day war, the United States destroyed the Spanish fleet outside Santiago harbor in Cuba, seized Manila in the Philippines, and occupied Puerto Rico.

"Uncle Joe" Cannon, later Speaker of the House, once said that McKinley kept his ear so close to the ground that it was full of grasshoppers. When McKinley was undecided what to do about Spanish possessions other than Cuba, he toured the country and detected an imperialist sentiment. Thus the United States annexed the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico.

In 1900, McKinley again campaigned against Bryan. While Bryan inveighed against imperialism, McKinley quietly stood for "the full dinner pail."

His second term, which had begun auspiciously, came to a tragic end in September 1901. He was standing in a receiving line at the Buffalo Pan-American Exposition when a deranged anarchist shot him twice. He died eight days later.

23. BENJAMIN HARRISON 1889-1893

2009-07-05T09:03:00.001+07:00

Nominated for President on the eighth ballot at the 1888 Republican Convention, Benjamin Harrison conducted one of the first "front-porch" campaigns, delivering short speeches to delegations that visited him in Indianapolis. As he was only 5 feet, 6 inches tall, Democrats called him "Little Ben"; Republicans replied that he was big enough to wear the hat of his grandfather, "Old Tippecanoe."

Born in 1833 on a farm by the Ohio River below Cincinnati, Harrison attended Miami University in Ohio and read law in Cincinnati. He moved to Indianapolis, where he practiced law and campaigned for the Republican Party. He married Caroline Lavinia Scott in 1853. After the Civil War--he was Colonel of the 70th Volunteer Infantry--Harrison became a pillar of Indianapolis, enhancing his reputation as a brilliant lawyer.

The Democrats defeated him for Governor of Indiana in 1876 by unfairly stigmatizing him as "Kid Gloves" Harrison. In the 1880's he served in the United States Senate, where he championed Indians. homesteaders, and Civil War veterans.

In the Presidential election, Harrison received 100,000 fewer popular votes than Cleveland, but carried the Electoral College 233 to 168. Although Harrison had made no political bargains, his supporters had given innumerable pledges upon his behalf.

When Boss Matt Quay of Pennsylvania heard that Harrison ascribed his narrow victory to Providence, Quay exclaimed that Harrison would never know "how close a number of men were compelled to approach... the penitentiary to make him President."

Harrison was proud of the vigorous foreign policy which he helped shape. The first Pan American Congress met in Washington in 1889, establishing an information center which later became the Pan American Union. At the end of his administration Harrison submitted to the Senate a treaty to annex Hawaii; to his disappointment, President Cleveland later withdrew it.

Substantial appropriation bills were signed by Harrison for internal improvements, naval expansion, and subsidies for steamship lines. For the first time except in war, Congress appropriated a billion dollars. When critics attacked "the billion-dollar Congress," Speaker Thomas B. Reed replied, "This is a billion-dollar country." President Harrison also signed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act "to protect trade and commerce against unlawful restraints and monopolies," the first Federal act attempting to regulate trusts.

The most perplexing domestic problem Harrison faced was the tariff issue. The high tariff rates in effect had created a surplus of money in the Treasury. Low-tariff advocates argued that the surplus was hurting business. Republican leaders in Congress successfully met the challenge. Representative William McKinley and Senator Nelson W. Aldrich framed a still higher tariff bill; some rates were intentionally prohibitive.

Harrison tried to make the tariff more acceptable by writing in reciprocity provisions. To cope with the Treasury surplus, the tariff was removed from imported raw sugar; sugar growers within the United States were given two cents a pound bounty on their production.

Long before the end of the Harrison Administration, the Treasury surplus had evaporated, and prosperity seemed about to disappear as well. Congressional elections in 1890 went stingingly against the Republicans, and party leaders decided to abandon President Harrison although he had cooperated with Congress on party legislation. Nevertheless, his party renominated him in 1892, but he was defeated by Cleveland.

After he left office, Harrison returned to Indianapolis, and married the widowed Mrs. Mary Dimmick in 1896. A dignified elder statesman, he died in 1901.

22. & 24. GROVER CLEVELAND 1885-1889, 1893-1897

2009-07-05T08:54:00.002+07:00

The First Democrat elected after the Civil War, Grover Cleveland was the only President to leave the White House and return for a second term four years later.

One of nine children of a Presbyterian minister, Cleveland was born in New Jersey in 1837. He was raised in upstate New York. As a lawyer in Buffalo, he became notable for his single-minded concentration upon whatever task faced him.

At 44, he emerged into a political prominence that carried him to the White House in three years. Running as a reformer, he was elected Mayor of Buffalo in 1881, and later, Governor of New York.

Cleveland won the Presidency with the combined support of Democrats and reform Republicans, the "Mugwumps," who disliked the record of his opponent James G. Blaine of Maine.

A bachelor, Cleveland was ill at ease at first with all the comforts of the White House. "I must go to dinner," he wrote a friend, "but I wish it was to eat a pickled herring a Swiss cheese and a chop at Louis' instead of the French stuff I shall find." In June 1886 Cleveland married 21-year-old Frances Folsom; he was the only President married in the White House.

Cleveland vigorously pursued a policy barring special favors to any economic group. Vetoing a bill to appropriate $10,000 to distribute seed grain among drought-stricken farmers in Texas, he wrote: "Federal aid in such cases encourages the expectation of paternal care on the part of the Government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character. . . . "

He also vetoed many private pension bills to Civil War veterans whose claims were fraudulent. When Congress, pressured by the Grand Army of the Republic, passed a bill granting pensions for disabilities not caused by military service, Cleveland vetoed it, too.

He angered the railroads by ordering an investigation of western lands they held by Government grant. He forced them to return 81,000,000 acres. He also signed the Interstate Commerce Act, the first law attempting Federal regulation of the railroads.

In December 1887 he called on Congress to reduce high protective tariffs. Told that he had given Republicans an effective issue for the campaign of 1888, he retorted, "What is the use of being elected or re-elected unless you stand for something?" But Cleveland was defeated in 1888; although he won a larger popular majority than the Republican candidate Benjamin Harrison, he received fewer electoral votes.

Elected again in 1892, Cleveland faced an acute depression. He dealt directly with the Treasury crisis rather than with business failures, farm mortgage foreclosures, and unemployment. He obtained repeal of the mildly inflationary Sherman Silver Purchase Act and, with the aid of Wall Street, maintained the Treasury's gold reserve.

When railroad strikers in Chicago violated an injunction, Cleveland sent Federal troops to enforce it. "If it takes the entire army and navy of the United States to deliver a post card in Chicago," he thundered, "that card will be delivered."

Cleveland's blunt treatment of the railroad strikers stirred the pride of many Americans. So did the vigorous way in which he forced Great Britain to accept arbitration of a disputed boundary in Venezuela. But his policies during the depression were generally unpopular. His party deserted him and nominated William Jennings Bryan in 1896.

After leaving the White House, Cleveland lived in retirement in Princeton, New Jersey. He died in 1908.

Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie

2009-07-04T20:58:00.002+07:00

Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie, more commonly known simply as B J Habibie, was the third President of Indonesia, holding office from 1998 to 1999.

Early life

Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie was born in Pare-Pare, South Sulawesi, to Alwi Abdul Jalil Habibie and R. A. Tuti Marini Puspowardojo. He studied at the Bandung Institute of Technology for one year.

In 1950, when Habibie was fourteen, he became acquainted with Lieutenant Colonel Suharto. The future Indonesian President was then stationed in Makassar to put down a separatist rebellion and lived in a house across the road from the Habibie family's. Suharto quickly became a family friend. He was present during the death of Habibie's father and became an intermediary when one of his soldiers wanted to marry Habibie's sister

Time in Germany

During 1955-1965, he studied aerospace engineering at the RWTH Aachen University, Germany, receiving Diploma (Germany's First degree certificate which is equivalent to Master in most countries) in 1960 and doctorate in 1965. He then worked for Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm in Hamburg. It might have been due to his time spent in Europe that made him interested in the Leica line of cameras.

While working in Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm, Habibie conducted many research assignments, producing theories on thermodynamics, construction, and aerodynamics, known as the Habibie Factor, Habibie Theorem, and Habibie Method.

Minister of Technology and Research

In 1974, Suharto sent Ibnu Sutowo to Germany to meet Habibie and convince him to come back to Indonesia. Habibie was convinced and returned to Indonesia, taking the position of Technological Adviser to the President.

From 1978 to 1998 Habibie served as Minister of Technology and Research in Suharto's Cabinet. He pushed for a leapfrog strategy of development, which he hoped would bypass the foundational low-skill technology stages to turn Indonesia into an industrialized nation. Despite national and international opposition (which preferred agricultural investments to technological investments) to this;he once famously announced that "I have some figures which compare the cost of one kilo of airplane compared to one kilo of rice. One kilo of airplane costs thirty thousand US dollars and one kilo of rice is seven cents. And if you want to pay for your one kilo of high-tech products with a kilo of rice, I don't think we have enough [2]."

Habibie had considerable power as Minister of Technology. His long acquaintance with Suharto combined with Suharto's own desire that Indonesia master technology as part of its development meant that Habibie was able to get extra fundings from the budget for his projects at the expense of other ministers' project. In 1989, Suharto increased Habibie's power, putting him in charge of strategic industries.

Aviation industry

When Habibie came back to Indonesia in 1974, he was also made CEO of a new state owned enterprise called PT. Nurtanio. By the early 1980s it had made considerable progress, specializing in making helicopters and small passenger planes. In 1995, Habibie succeeded in flying a N-250 (dubbed Gatotkoco) commuter plane.

In developing Indonesia's Aviation Industry, Habibie adopted an approach called "Begin at the End and End at the Beginning" [3]. In this method, things such as basic research became the last things that the workers at IPTN focused on while actual manufacturing of the planes was placed as the first objective.

In 1985, PT. Nurtanio changed its name to Indonesian Aviation Industry (IPTN) and is now known as Indonesian Aerospace Inc. (Dirgantara).

Union of Indonesian Intellectual Muslims (ICMI)

By the late 80's, it became apparent that there was a rift between Suharto and his main political ally, ABRI. Suharto, who had repressed Islamists in the earlier years of his regime now began to make concilliatory gestures in a bid to build a new power base to compensate the one he was losing with ABRI.

In December 1990, the ICMI was formed with Habibie as its Chairman. In Suharto's eyes, ICMI would become his main weapon in appealing to the Muslim society. ICMI was a successful venture, by 1994, it had 20,000 members including future political opponents such as Nurcolish Majid and Amien Rais [4].

Habibie served as Chairman of ICMI for 10 years.

Member of Golkar

Like all Government officials in Suharto's regime, Habibie was a member of Golkar.

From 1993-1998, Habibie was a Daily Coordinator for the Chairman of the Executive Board.

Vice presidency

The 1998 People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) General Session was to be held in the midst of the Asian Financial Crisis and many were hoping for Suharto to take serious steps to take the country out of trouble. In January 1998, after accepting nomination for a 7th term as President, Suharto announced the criteria for the person who he wanted as Vice President. Suharto did not mention Habibie by name but his suggestion that the next Vice President should have mastery over science and technology made it obvious who he wanted to nominate [5]. The market reacted badly, causing the rupiah to further depreciate in value.

Despite protests and former Minister Emil Salim trying to nominate himself as Vice President, Habibie was elected as Vice President in March 1998.

Presidency
Main article: Post-Suharto Era

Rise to office
Habibie takes the presidential oath of office on 21 May 1998.

By May 1998, the increasing poverty caused by the Financial Crisis and political discontent had reached boiling point. On 13 May, the shooting of six students at Trisakti University in Jakarta, caused extreme anger which in turn caused widespread riots and lootings. There were now explicit calls for Suharto to step down as President of Indonesia. Suharto responded by saying on May 19,1998 that if he stepped down, the Vice President would become President and in a not too subtle jab to Habibie, said that he was not sure whether the Vice President could solve the problems facing the country [6].

Habibie, who learned of Suharto's comments from television, was upset with his mentor and from then on was increasingly sympathetic to those who wanted Suharto to step down. While careful not to oppose him directly or support those who did, Habibie left the president in little doubt that he saw himself as Suharto's legitimate successor. Suharto, faced with dwindling civilian and military support, even among loyalists like Wiranto and Ginandjar Kartasasmita, decided to resign late on the evening of May 20, 1998. [7]

The next morning, on May 21, 1998, Suharto publicly announced his resignation and Habibie was immediately sworn in as President. There was mixed reaction to Habibie's assumption of the Presidency. Hardline reformists saw Habibie as an extension of Suharto's regime while moderate reformists saw him as leading a transitional Government.

With the release of his 2006 book, Detik-Detik Yang Menentukan: Jalan Panjang Indonesia Menuju Demokrasi (Decisive Moments: Indonesia's Long Road Towards Democracy), there is speculation that Suharto had wanted Habibie to resign along with him. [8] In Javanese style, Suharto hinted at this intention subtly. Habibie, who isn't Javanese, didn't take the hint and decided to take the office of the President. Because of this inability to read his intentions, Suharto showed nothing but contempt and never talked to Habibie again.

Cabinet

Habibie's Cabinet, which was called the Development Reform Cabinet consisted mostly of the same faces which had served in Suharto's last Cabinet.[9] To show his reformist bent, Habibie included United Development Party (PPP) member Hamzah Haz in the Cabinet.

East Timor

When he took office, Habibie made it clear that East Timorese Independence was out of the question, but that he would consider giving East Timor special autonomy.[10] In January 1999, however, Habibie surprised everyone by announcing that a referendum, choosing between special autonomy and independence, would be held in East Timor. This particular decision made Habibie extremely unpopular with ABRI.

On 30 August 1999, the referendum was held and the East Timorese people chose overwhelmingly for Independence. However, the retreat of Indonesian troops from East Timor would not be peaceful as many were killed by Pro-Indonesian para-militaries.

Suharto's corruption charge

The 1998 MPR Special Session in November declared that an investigation should be made into corruption charges especially that of Suharto's.

Habibie also thought of forming a special commission as a gesture of good faith towards Reformasi and invited noted lawyer Adnan Buyung Nasution to be on the commission. Nasution would ask for a lot of power in investigating the matter and Habibie rejected the offer. Instead, he appointed Attorney General and loyalist, Andi Muhammad Ghalib to head the investigation.

On 9 December 1998, Suharto was questioned for three hours by Ghalib. The Habibie Government declared that Suharto had not gained his wealth by corruption.

A controversial tape was released which involved a telephone conversation between Habibie and Ghalib. The conversation seemed to suggest that Habibie's Government was not giving a serious attempt at investigating Suharto's corruption charges [11].

The economy

Habibie's Government stabilized the economy after the chaos which it went through in the Asian Financial Crisis and the last few months of Suharto's Presidency [12].

Social

Habibie's Government also began making concilliatory gestures towards Chinese Indonesians who because of their wealth and dominance of the Indonesian economy were targeted during the violence and looting. In September 1998, Habibie issued a Presidential Instruction which does not allow for the discriminatorial reference to pribumi (Native) and non-pribumi (Non-Native) [13]. In May 1999, Habibie followed this up with another Presidential Instruction which states that a display of ID Card is enough to prove someone's Indonesian citizenship whereas before, displaying the Letter of Evidence of Republic of Indonesia Citizenship (SBKRI) was the norm.

Although they were not mentioned specifically, it is clear that these policies were targeted towards Chinese Indonesians who in the Suharto years were referred to as non-Pribumi and had to display SBKRI to prove their Indonesian citizenship.

Other

When he was a State Minister for Research and Technology, BJ Habibie created a program called OFP (Overseas Fellowship program), SMDP (Science and Manpower Development Program) and STAID (Science and Technology for Industrial Development). The three programs were to provide scholarships to thousands of students to continue their study for master’s and doctorate program in the United States, Europe, Japan, and others.

End of presidency

Although he had been viewed as just leading a transitional Government, Habibie seemed determined to continue as President. In May 1999, Golkar announced that Habibie would be their Presidential candidate.

At the 1999 MPR General Session in October, Habibie delivered an accountability speech, which was a report of what he had achieved during his Presidency. Once this was completed, the MPR members began voting to decide if they would accept or reject Habibie's speech. During this process, pro-Reform members of Golkar broke with the ranks and voted against Habibie and the accountability speech was rejected with 355 votes to 322. Seeing that it would be unethical to go for the Presidency after having his accountability speech rejected, Habibie withdrew his nomination.

Post-presidency

Since relinquishing the presidency, Habibie has spent more time in Germany than in Indonesia. But after Susilo Bambang Yudoyono era, he active work as president adviser and in The Habibie Centre to ensure democratization in Indonesia.

In September 2006, Habibie released a book called Detik-Detik Yang Menentukan: Jalan Panjang Indonesia Menuju Demokrasi (Decisive Moments: Indonesia's Long Road Towards Democracy). The book recalled the events of May 1998 which led to his rise to the Presidency. In the book, he controversially accuse Lieutenant General Prabowo, Suharto's son-in-law and the Kostrad Commander in May 1998, of planning a coup d'etat against him.

Family

Habibie is married to Hasri Ainun with whom he had two sons, both of them are married and give Habibie grand children. Habibie's father was from Sulawesi (Celebes) but his mother was Javanese from Central Java. His brother, Yunus Habibie, is the current Indonesian ambassador to the Netherlands.

Abdurrahman Wahid

2009-07-04T20:49:00.002+07:00

Abdurrahman Wahid (also known as Gus Dur) (born September 7, 1940) is an Indonesian Muslim religious and political leader who served as the President of Indonesia from 1999 to 2001. The long-time president of the Nahdlatul Ulama and the founder of the National Awakening Party (PKB), Wahid was the first elected president of Indonesia after the fall of the Suharto regime in 1998.

Early life

Abdurrahman Wahid was born on the fourth day of the eighth month of the Islamic calendar in 1940 in Jombang, East Java to Wahid Hasyim and Solichah. This led to a belief that he was born on August 4, instead the calendar used to mark his birth date was the Islamic calendar meaning that he was actually born on 4 Sha'aban, equivalent to September 7, 1940.

He was the firstborn out of his five siblings, and Wahid was born into a very prestigious family in the East Java Muslim community. His paternal Grandfather, Hasyim Asyari was the founder of Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) while his maternal Grandfather, Bisri Syansuri was the first Muslim educator to introduce classes for women.[1] Wahid's father, Wahid Hasyim, was involved in the Nationalist Movement and would go on to be Indonesia's first Minister of Religious Affairs.

In 1944, Wahid moved from Jombang to Jakarta where his father was involved with the Consultative Council of Indonesian Muslims (Masyumi), an organization established by the Japanese Imperial Army which occupied Indonesia at the time. After the Indonesian Declaration of Independence on 17 August 1945, Wahid moved back to Jombang and remained there during the fight for independence from the Netherlands during the Indonesian National Revolution. At the end of the war in 1949, Wahid moved to Jakarta as his father had received appointment as Minister of Religious Affairs. Wahid went about his education in Jakarta, going to KRIS Primary School before moving to Matraman Perwari Primary School. In addition to education provided at school, Wahid was also encouraged to read non-Muslim books, magazines, and newspapers by his father to further broaden his horizons.[2] Wahid continued to stay in Jakarta with his family even after his father's removal as Minister of Religious Affairs in 1952. In April 1953, Wahid's father died after being involved in a car crash.

Wahid's education continued and in 1954, he began Junior High School. That year, he failed to graduate to the next year and was forced to repeat. His mother then made the decision to send Wahid to Yogyakarta to continue his education. In 1957, after graduating from Junior High School, Wahid moved to Magelang to begin Muslim Education at Pesantren (Muslim School) Tegalrejo. He developed a reputation as a gifted student, completing the pesantren's course in two years instead of four. In 1959, Wahid moved back to Jombang to Pesantren Tambakberas. There, while continuing his own education, Wahid also received his first job as a teacher and later on as headmaster of a madrasah affiliated with the Pesantren. Wahid also found employment as a journalist for magazines such as Horizon and Majalah Budaya Jaya.

Overseas education

In 1963, Wahid received a scholarship from the Ministry of Religious Affairs to study at Al Azhar University in Cairo, Egypt. He left for Egypt in November 1963. Despite his proficiency at speaking Arabic, Wahid was told by University officials when he arrived that he was to take a remedial class before taking on the University's Higher Institute for Islamic and Arabic studies. Unable to provide evidence to certify that he spoke Arabic, Wahid was forced to take the remedial class.

Instead of attending classes, Wahid spent 1964 enjoying life in Egypt; watching European and American movies as well indulging in his hobby of watching football. Wahid was also involved with the Association of Indonesian Students and became a journalist for the association's magazine. At the end of the year, he successfully passed exams for his remedial Arabic classes. When he finally began studies at the Higher Institute for Islamic and Arabic Studies in 1965, Wahid was disappointed. He had already studied many of the texts offered at the Institute while he was in Java and disapproved of the rote learning method used by the University.[3]

In Egypt, Wahid found employment with the Indonesian Embassy. It was during his stint with the Embassy that G30S PKI happened. With Kostrad Commander, Major General Suharto taking control of the situation in Jakarta, a Communist crackdown was initiated. For its part, the Indonesian Embassy in Egypt was ordered to conduct an investigation on university students and give a report on their political stance. This order was then passed on to Wahid, who was charged with writing the reports.[4]

Wahid's displeasure at the method of education and his work post-G30S distracted him from his studies. Wahid's tertiary education was saved through another scholarship at the University of Baghdad. Wahid moved to Iraq and enjoyed his new environment. Although he was lax in attending classes at first, Wahid quickly took to his studies. Wahid also continued his involvement with the Association of Indonesian Students as well as writing journalistic pieces to be read in Indonesia.

After completing his education at the University of Baghdad in 1970, Wahid went to the Netherlands in the hopes of continuing his education. Wahid wanted to attend Leiden University but was disappointed as there was little recognition for the studies that he had done at the University of Baghdad. From Netherlands, Wahid went to Germany and France before going back to Indonesia in 1971.

Early career

Wahid returned to Jakarta expecting that in a year's time, he would be abroad again to study at McGill University in Canada. He kept himself busy by joining the Institute for Economic and Social Research, Education and Information (LP3ES),[5] an organization which consisted of intellectuals with progressive Muslims and social-democratic views. LP3ES established a magazine called Prisma and Wahid became one of the main contributors to the magazine. Whilst working as a contributor for LP3ES, Wahid also conducted tours to pesantrens and madrasahs all around Java. It was a time when pesantren were desperate to gain state funding by adopting state-endorsed curricula and Wahid was concerned that the traditional values of the pesantren were being damaged because of this change. Wahid was also concerned with the poverty of the pesantren which he saw during his tours. At the same time as they were encouraging pesantren to adopt state-endorsed curricula, the Government was also encouraging pesantren as agents for change and to help assist the Government in its economic development of Indonesia. It was at this time that Wahid finally decided to drop plans for overseas studies in favor of developing the pesantren.

Wahid continued his career as a journalist, writing for magazine Tempo and Kompas newspaper. His articles were well-received and he began to develop a reputation as a social commentator. Wahid's popularity was such that at this time, he was invited along to give lectures and seminars, forcing him to travel back and forth between Jakarta and Jombang, where he now lived with his family.

Despite having a successful career up to that point, Wahid still found it hard to make ends meet and he worked to earn extra income by selling peanuts and delivering ice to be used for his wife's Es Lilin (popsicle) business.[6] In 1974, Wahid found extra employment in Jombang as a Muslim Legal Studies teacher at Pesantren Tambakberas and soon developed a good reputation. A year later, Wahid added to his workload as a Teacher of Kitab Al Hikam, a classical text of sufism.

In 1977, Wahid joined the Hasyim Asyari University as Dean of the Faculty of Islamic Beliefs and Practices. Once again, Wahid excelled in his job and the University wanted to Wahid to teach extra subjects such as pedagogy, sharia, and missiology. However, his excellence caused some resentment from within the ranks of university and Wahid was blocked from teaching the subjects. Whilst undertaking all these ventures Wahid also regularly delivered speeches during ramadan to the Muslim community in Jombang.

Nahdlatul Ulama

Early involvement with NU

Wahid's family background meant that sooner or later, he would be asked to play an active role in the running of NU. This ran contrary to Wahid's aspirations of becoming a public intellectual and he had twice rejected offers to join the NU Religious Advisory Council. Nevertheless, Wahid finally chose to join the Council when his own grandfather, Bisri Syansuri gave him the third offer.[7] In taking this job, Wahid also made the decision to move from Jombang to Jakarta and to permanently reside there. As a member of the Religious Advisory Council, Wahid envisioned himself as a reformer of NU.

At this time, Wahid also had his first political experience. In the lead-up to the 1982 Legislative Elections, Wahid campaigned for the United Development Party (PPP), an Islamist Party which was formed as a result of a merger of 4 Islamist parties including NU. Wahid recalled that the Government actively disrupted PPP's campaigns by arresting people like himself.[8] However, Wahid was always able to secure his release, having developed connections in high places with the likes of General Benny Moerdani.

Reforming NU

By this time, many viewed NU as an organization in stagnation. After careful discussion, the Religious Advisory Council finally formed a Team of Seven (which included Wahid) to tackle the issues of reform and to help revitalize NU. For some members of NU, reform in the organization involved a change of leadership. On 2 May 1982, a group of high-ranking NU officials met with NU Chairman Idham Chalid and asked for his resignation. Idham, who had guided NU in the transition from Sukarno to Suharto resisted at first but bowed down to pressure. On 6 May 1982, Wahid heard of Idham's decision to resign and approached him saying that the demands to resign were unconstitutional. With urging from Wahid, Idham withdrew his resignation and Wahid, together with the Team of Seven was able to negotiate a compromise between Idham and those who had asked for his resignation.[9]

In 1983, Suharto was re-elected to a fourth term as President by the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) and began taking steps to establish Pancasila as the State Ideology. From June 1983 to October 1983, Wahid became part of a team which was commissioned to prepare NU's response to this issue. Wahid consulted texts such as the Quran and Sunnah for justification and finally, in October 1983, concluded that NU should accept Pancasila as the State Ideology.[10] To further revitalize NU, Wahid was also successful in securing its withdrawal from PPP and Party politics. This was done so that, NU can focus on social matters instead of hampering itself by being involved in politics.

Election to Chairmanship and first term as Chairman

Wahid's reforms had made him extremely popular within the ranks of NU. By the time of the 1984 National Congress, many began to state their intentions to nominate Wahid as the new Chairman of NU. Wahid accepted the nomination, provided that he had the power to choose who would be on his leadership team. Wahid was elected as the new Chairman of NU during the National Congress. However, his stipulation of choosing his own team was not honored. The last day of the Congress had begun with Wahid's list of team members being approved by high-ranking NU officials including outgoing Chairman Idham. Wahid had gone to the Committee in charge of running the Congress and handed in his list which was to be announced later. However, the Committee in question was against Idham and announced a totally different list of people. Wahid was outraged but was pressured to accept the changes made.[11]

Wahid's ascendancy to the NU Chairmanship was seen positively by Suharto and his New Order regime. Wahid's acceptance of Pancasila along with his moderate image won him favor among Government ranks. In 1985, Suharto made Wahid a Pancasila indoctrinator.[12] In 1987, Wahid showed further support for the regime by criticizing PPP in the lead-up to the 1987 Legislative Elections and further strengthening Suharto's Golkar Party. His reward came in the form of a membership of the MPR. Although he was viewed with favor by the regime, Wahid criticised the Government over the Kedung Ombo Dam project that was funded by the World Bank. Although this somewhat soured the cordial relationships that Wahid had with the Government, Suharto was still keen on getting political support from NU.

During his 1st term as Chairman of NU, Wahid focused on reform of the pesantren education system and was successful in increasing the quality of pesantren education system so that it can match up with secular schools.[13] In 1987, Wahid also set up study groups in Probolinggo, East Java to provide a forum for like-minded individuals within NU to discuss and provide interpretations to Muslim texts.[14] Critics accused Wahid of wishing to replace the Arabic Muslim greeting of "assalamualaikum" with the secular greeting of "selamat pagi", which means good morning in Indonesian.

Second term as Chairman and opposing the New Order

Wahid was re-elected to a second term as Chairman of NU at the 1989 National Congress. By this time, Suharto, embroiled in a political battle with ABRI began to ingratiate himself with the Muslim constituency so as to win their support. This venture reached a turning point in December 1990 with the formation of the Union of Indonesian Intellectual Muslims (ICMI). This organization was backed by Suharto, Chaired by BJ Habibie and included Muslim intellectuals such as Amien Rais and Nurcholish Madjid as its members. In 1991, various members of ICMI asked Wahid to join. Wahid declined because he thought that ICMI encouraged sectarianism and that it was just a means by Suharto to remain powerful.[15] In 1991, Wahid countered ICMI by forming the Democracy Forum, an organization which contained of 45 intellectuals from various religious and social communities. The organization was treated with credibility by the Government and broke up meetings held by the Democracy Forum as the 1992 Legislative Elections approached.

In March 1992, Wahid planned to have a Great Assembly to celebrate the 66th anniversary of the founding of NU and to reiterate the organization's support for Pancasila. Wahid had planned for the event to be attended by at least one million NU members. However, Suharto moved to block the event, ordering policemen to turn back busloads of NU members as they arrived in Jakarta. Nevertheless, the event managed to attract 200,000 attendants. After the event, Wahid wrote a letter of protest to Suharto saying that NU had not been given a chance to display a brand of Islam that is open, fair, and tolerant.[16] During his second term as Chairman of NU, Wahid's liberal ideas had begun to turn many supporters sour. As Chairman, Wahid continued to push for inter-faith dialogue and even accepted an invitation to visit Israel in October 1994.[17]

Third term as Chairman and the lead-up to Reformasi

As the 1994 National Congress approached, Wahid nominated himself for a 3rd term as Chairman. Hearing this, Suharto wanted to make sure that Wahid was not elected. In the weeks leading up to the Congress, Suharto's supporters, such as Habibie and Harmoko campaigned against Wahid's re-election. When it came time for the National Congress, the site for the Congress was tightly guarded by ABRI in an act of intimidation.[18] Despite this, and attempts to bribe NU members to vote against him, Wahid came through and was re-elected as NU Chairman for a 3rd term. During this term, Wahid began to move closer towards a political alliance with Megawati Sukarnoputri from the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI). Capitalizing on her father's legacy, Megawati had a lot of popularity and intended to put political and moral pressure on Suharto's regime. Wahid advised Megawati to be cautious and to avoid being nominated as President during the 1998 MPR General Session. Megawati ignored this advice and paid the price in July 1996 when her PDI headquarters were taken over by supporters of Government-backed PDI Chairman, Suryadi.

Seeing what happened to Megawati, Wahid thought that his best option now was to retreat politically by getting himself back in favor with the Government. In November 1996, Wahid and Suharto met for the first time since Wahid's re-election to the NU Chairmanship and this was followed over the next few months by meetings with various Government people who in 1994 had attempted to block Wahid's re-election.[19] At the same time however, Wahid kept his options for reform open and in December 1996, had a meeting with Amien Rais, an ICMI member who had grown critical of the Regime.

July 1997 saw the beginning of the Asian Financial Crisis. Suharto began to lose control of the situation and just as he was being pushed to step up the reform movement with Megawati and Amien, Wahid suffered a stroke in January 1998. From his bed in the hospital, Wahid continued to see the situation worsen with Suharto's re-election to a 7th term as President and the student protests which would turn into riots in May 1998 after the shooting of six students at Trisakti University. On 19 May 1998, Wahid, together with eight prominent leaders from the Muslim community were summoned to Suharto's residence. Suharto presented the concept of a Reform Committee which he had begun to propose at the time. All nine rejected Suharto's offer to join the Reform Committee. Wahid maintained a more moderate stance with Suharto and called on the protesting to stop to see if Suharto was going to implement his promise.[20] This displeased Amien who was the most vocal out of Suharto's opposition at this time. Nevertheless, there was no stopping Suharto's fall and on 21 May 1998, he announced his resignation. Vice President Habibie now ascended to the Presidency.

Reformation

Formation of PKB and the Ciganjur statement

One of the immediate effects of Suharto's fall was the formation of new political parties. Under Suharto's regime, political parties had been limited to just three; Golkar, PPP, and PDI. Now with his fall, new political parties were formed, the most prominent of which was Amien's National Mandate Party (PAN) and Megawati's Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle (PDI-P). In June 1998, many from within the NU community began pressuring Wahid to form a new political party. Wahid did not warm up to the idea immediately, thinking that this will result in a political party which only catered to one religion and not willing to overrule his own decision to take NU out of politics. By July 1998 however, he began to warm up to the idea, thinking that establishing a political party was the only way to challenge the organizationally strong Golkar in an election. With that in mind, Wahid approved of the formation of PKB and became the Chairman of its Advisory Council with Matori Abdul Djalil as Party Chairman. Although it was clearly dominated by NU members, Wahid promoted PKB as a party that is non-sectarian and open to all members of society.

As opposition to the Government, Wahid, together with Megawati and Amien were willing to adopt a moderate stance towards Habibie's Government; preferring instead to wait for the 1999 Legislative Elections.[21] Nevertheless, in November 1998, in a meeting at his residence in the Jakarta suburb of Ciganjur, Wahid, together with Megawati, Amien, and Sultan Hamengkubuwono X reiterated their commitment to Reform. On 7 February 1999, PKB officially declared Wahid as their Presidential candidate.

1999 elections and MPR General Session

In June 1999, Wahid's PKB entered the Legislative Elections. PKB won 12% of the votes with Megawati's PDI-P winning the Legislative Elections with 33% of the votes. With her party decisively winning the Legislative Elections, Megawati expected to win the Presidency against Habibie at the MPR General Session. However, PDI-P did not have complete majority and formed a loose alliance with PKB. In July however, Amien Rais would form the Central Axis, a coalition of Muslim parties.[22] The Central Axis then began to consider nominating Wahid as a third candidate in the Presidential race and PKB's commitment towards PDI-P began to waver.

In October 1999, the MPR convened and Wahid threw his support behind Amien who was elected as the Chairman of MPR. On 7 October 1999, Amien and the Central Axis, who now had PKB on their side, officially nominated Wahid as a Presidential Candidate.[23] On 19 October 1999, the MPR rejected Habibie's accountability speech and Habibie withdrew himself from the Presidential race. In the hours that followed, Akbar Tanjung, Chairman of Golkar and Head of the People's Representative Council (DPR) made it clear that Golkar would support Wahid in his bid for the Presidency. On 20 October 1999, the MPR convened and began electing for a new President. Wahid was then elected as Indonesia's 4th President with 373 votes to Megawati's 313 votes.[24]

Displeased that their candidate had not won the Presidency, Megawati's supporters began to riot and Wahid realized that for this to stop, Megawati had to be elected as Vice President. After convincing General Wiranto not to compete in the Vice Presidential elections and getting the PKB to support Megawati for this election, Wahid was successful in convincing the demoralized Megawati to compete. On the 21 October 1999, Megawati competed in the Vice Presidential election and defeated PPP's Hamzah Haz to become the next Vice President.

Presidency
Main article: Post-Suharto Era

1999

Wahid's first Cabinet, dubbed the National Unity Cabinet, was a Coalition Cabinet which consisted of members of various political parties. PDI-P, PKB, Golkar, PPP, PAN, and Justice Party (PK). Non-partisans and the TNI (Formerly known as ABRI) were also represented in the Cabinet. Wahid then went on to make two administrative reforms. The first administrative reform was to abolish the Ministry of Information, the Suharto's regime main weapon in controlling the media while the second administrative reform was to disband the Ministry of Welfare which had become corrupt and extortionist under the Suharto regime [25].

In November, Wahid made his first overseas trip, visiting ASEAN member countries, Japan, United States of America, Qatar, Kuwait, and Jordan. He followed this up in December by a visit to the People's Republic of China. [26]

After only a month in the National Unity Cabinet, Coordinating Minister of People's Welfare Hamzah Haz announced his resignation in November. There was suspicion that the resignation was brought about by Wahid's allegation that certain members of his Cabinet were involved in corruption while he was still in America [27]. Others suggested that Hamzah's resignation was because of displeasure towards Wahid's concilliatory stance towards Israel [28].

Wahid's plan in Aceh was to give it a referendum. However, this referendum would be to decide on various modes of autonomy rather than to decide on independence like in East Timor. Wahid also wanted to adopt a softer stance towards Aceh by having less military personnel on the ground. On 30 December, Wahid visited Jayapura in the Province which was then known as Irian Jaya. During his visit, Wahid was successful in convincing West Papuan leaders that he was a force for change and even encouraged the use of the name Papua [29].

2000

In January, Wahid made another overseas trip to Switzerland to attend the World Economic Forum and visited Saudi Arabia on the way back to Indonesia. In February, Wahid made another trip to Europe visiting the United Kingdom, France, Netherlands, Germany, and Italy. On the way back to Europe, Wahid also visited India, South Korea, Thailand, and Brunei. March saw Wahid visit East Timor. In April, Wahid visited South Africa en route to the G-77 summit in Cuba before returning via Mexico City and Hong Kong. In June, Wahid once again visited America, Japan, and France with Iran, Pakistan, and Egypt as the new additions to the list of countries which he had visited.[30]

Cabinet dismissals

While he was travelling to Europe in February, Wahid began asking for the resignation of General Wiranto, who held the position of Coordinating Minister of Politics and Security. Wahid saw Wiranto both as an obstacle to his planned reform of the Military as well as being a liability to his Government with his alleged human rights abuses in East Timor [31]. When Wahid arrived back in Jakarta, Wiranto talked to him and seemed successful in convincing Wahid not to replace him. However, Wahid would change his mind and ask for his resignation. In April 2000, Wahid dismissed Minister of Industry and Trade Jusuf Kalla and Minister of State Owned Enterprises Laksamana Sukardi. The explanation that he gave was that the two were involved in corruption, although he never gave evidence to back it up [32]. This move soured Wahid's relations with Golkar and PDI-P.

Aceh

In March 2000, Wahid's Government began to open negotiations with the Free Aceh Movement (GAM). Two months later, in May, the Government signed a memorandum of understanding with GAM to last until the beginning of 2001, by which time both signatories would have breached the agreement [33].

Other Overtures toward Reconciliation

In March 2000, Wahid suggested that the 1966 Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) resolution on the banning of Marxism-Leninism be lifted [34].

Wahid also moved to establish commercial relations with Israel, which aroused the ire of many Indonesian Muslim groups.[35] This was one issue that arose in the briefing given to a Palestinian parliamentary delegation in 2000 by Riddhi Awad, their ambassador to Indonesia. Another issue was Wahid's membership in the Shimon Peres Foundation. Both Wahid and his foreign minister Alwi Shihab took offense at the inaccurate portrayals of the Indonesian President, and Alwi called for the replacement of Awad.[36] However, Nurcholish Madjid pointed out that Wahid's personal neutrality toward the Israel-Palestine conflict should yield to the feelings of the "majority" of Indonesians, who support Palestine.[37]

Relationship with TNI

When he ascended to the Presidency, one of Wahid's goals was to reform the military and to take it out of its dominant socio-political role. In this venture, Wahid found an ally in Agus Wirahadikusumah who he made Commander of Kostrad in March. In July, Agus began uncovering a scandal involving Dharma Putra, a foundation with affiliations to Kostrad. Through Megawati, TNI members began pressuring Wahid to remove Agus. Wahid gave in to the pressure but then planned to have Agus appointed as the Army Chief of Staff to which TNI top brass responded by threatening to retire and Wahid once again bowed down to pressure [38].

Wahid's relationship with the TNI deteriorated even further when in July it was revealed that Laskar Jihad had arrived in Maluku and was being armed by the TNI. Laskar Jihad, a radical Islamic militia had earlier in the year planned to go to Maluku and assist Muslims there in their communal conflict with the Christians. Wahid had ordered TNI to block Laskar Jihad from going to Maluku, but nevertheless they still made it to Maluku and they were then being armed with what turned out to be TNI weapons [39].

Buloggate and Bruneigate

2000 saw Wahid embroiled in two scandals which would damage his Presidency. In May, the State Logistics Agency (BULOG) reported that US$4 Million were missing from its cash reserve. The missing cash was then attributed to Wahid's own masseur who had claimed that Wahid sent him to Bulog to collect the cash [40]. Although the money was returned, Wahid's opponents took the chance of accusing him of being involved in the scandal and of being aware of what his masseur was up to. At the same time, Wahid was also accused of keeping US$2 Million for himself. The money was a donation by the Sultan of Brunei to provide assistance in Aceh. However, Wahid failed to account for the money.

2000 MPR Annual Session and Cabinet reshuffle

As the 2000 MPR Annual Session approached, Wahid's popularity with the people were still at a high and politically, allies such as Megawati, Akbar, and Amien were still willing to support Wahid despite the sacking of the ministers and the scandals which he had been involved in. At the same time however, they were asking questions of Wahid. At the 2000 MPR Annual Session, Wahid delivered a speech which was well received by a majority of the MPR members. During the speech, Wahid recognized his weakness as an administrator and said that he was going to delegate the day-to-day running of the Government to a Senior Minister [41]. The MPR members agreed but proposed that Megawati should be the one to receive the task from the President. At first the MPR planned to have this proposal adopted as a resolution but a Presidential Decision was seen as enough. On the 23rd August, Wahid announced a new Cabinet despite Megawati's insistence that the announcement was delayed. Megawati showed her displeasure by not showing up for the Cabinet announcement. The new Cabinet was smaller and consisted of more non-partisans. There were no Golkar members in this Cabinet.

Regional unrest

In September, Wahid declared martial law in Maluku as the condition there continued to deteriorate. By now, it was evident that Laskar Jihad were being assisted by TNI members and it was also apparent that they were financed by Fuad Bawazier, the last Minister of Finance to have served under Suharto. During the same month, the West Papuans raised their Morning Star flag. Wahid's response was to allow the West Papuans to do this provided that the Morning Star flag was placed lower than the Indonesian flag [42] For this, he was severely criticized by Megawati and Akbar. On 24 December 2000, there was Terrorist Attack directed against churches in Jakarta and in eight cities across Indonesia.

Gathering political opposition

By the end of 2000, there were many within the political elite who were disillusioned with Wahid. The most obvious person who showed this disillusion was Amien who showed regret at supporting Wahid to the Presidency the previous year. Amien also attempted to rally opposition by encouraging Megawati and Akbar to flex their political muscles. Megawati surprisingly defended Wahid whilst Akbar preferred to wait for the 2004 Legislative Elections. At the end of November, 151 DPR members signed a petition calling for the impeachment of Wahid [43].

2001 & removal from power

In January, Wahid made the announcement that Chinese New Year was to become an optional holiday [44]. Wahid followed this up in February by lifting the ban on the display of Chinese characters and the importations of Chinese publication. In February, Wahid visited Northern Africa as well as Saudi Arabia to undertake the hajj pilgrimage [45]. Wahid made his last overseas visit in June 2001 when he visited Australia.

At meeting with university rectors on 27 January 2001, Wahid commented on the possibility of Indonesia descending into anarchy. Wahid then made the suggestion that he may be forced to dissolve the DPR if that happened [46]. Although the meeting was off-the-record, it caused quite a stir and added to the fuel of the movement against him. On 1 February, the DPR met to issue a memorandum against Wahid. Two memorandums constitutes an MPR Special Session where the impeachment and removal of a President would be legal. The vote was overwhelmingly for the memorandum and PKB members could only walk out in protest. The memorandum caused widespread protests by NU members. In East Java, NU members went around to Golkar's regional offices and thrashed it. In Jakarta, Wahid's opposition began accusing him of encouraging the protests. Wahid denied it and went to talk to the protesters at the town of Pasuruan; encouraging them to get off the streets [47]. Nevertheless, NU protesters continued to show their support for Wahid and in April, made the announcement that they were ready to defend and die for the President.

In March, Wahid tried to counter the opposition by moving against dissidents within his own Cabinet. Minister of Justice Yusril Ihza Mahendra was removed for making public his demands for the President's resignation while Minister of Forestry Nurmahmudi Ismail was also removed under the suspicion of chanelling his department's funds to Wahid's opposition. In response to this, Megawati began to distance herself and did not show up for the inauguration of the Ministers' replacement. On 30 April, the DPR issued a second memorandum and on the next day called for an MPR Special Session to be held on 1 August.

By July, Wahid grew desperate and ordered Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, the Coordinating Minister for Politics and Security to declare a State of Emergency. Yudhoyono refused and Wahid removed him from his position. Finally on 20 July, Amien declared that the MPR Special Session will be brought forward to 23 July. TNI, having had a bad relationship with Wahid through his tenure as President, stationed 40,000 troops in Jakarta and placed tanks with their turrets pointing at the Presidential Palace in a show of force [48]. On 23 July, the MPR unanimously voted to impeach Wahid and to replace him with Megawati as President. Wahid continued to insist that he was the President and stayed for some days in the Presidential Palace, but eventually left the residence on 25 July for a trip overseas to the United States for health treatments.

Post Presidency activities

Schism within the PKB

After his impeachment, Wahid turned his eyes to Matori Abdul Djalil, who was the Chairman of PKB. Before the MPR Special Session, it was agreed upon that no PKB members would attend as a sign of solidarity. However, Matori insisted on attending because he was a Vice-Chairman of the MPR and participated in the impeachment process. Using his position as Chairman of the Advisory Council, Wahid sacked Matori as Chairman of PKB on 15 August 2001 and suspended him from Party activities before stripping Matori of Party membership in November [49]. On 14 January 2002, Matori held a Special National Congress attended by his supporters in PKB. The Special National Congress re-elected him to the position of PKB Chairman. Wahid countered this by holding his own PKB National Congress on 17 January, a day after Matori's Congress ended [50] The National Congress re-elected Wahid to the position of Chairman of the Advisory Council and elected Alwi Shihab as its Chairman. Wahid's PKB would be known as PKB Kuningan whilst Matori's PKB would be known as PKB Batutulis.

2004 Legislative and Presidential elections

In April 2004, PKB participated in the 2004 Legislative Elections, winning 10.6% of the votes. For the 2004 Presidential Elections, in which the people will directly elect the President, PKB nominated Wahid as a Presidential Candidate. As a Presidential Candidate was required Wahid to go on a medical check-up before he is officially enlisted by the General Elections Commission (KPU) as a Presidential candidate. While other candidates such as Yudhoyono and Wiranto passed their respective tests, Wahid failed to do so and KPU refused to enlist him as a Presidential Candidate. Wahid then threw his support behind his brother, Solahuddin, who was the running mate of Wiranto. On 5 July 2004, Wiranto and Solahuddin were knocked out of the race after coming third to the pairs of Yudhoyono-Kalla and Megawati-Muzadi. For the run-off elections, held on 20 September 2004, Wahid declared himself as part of White Group (Golput) which meant that he will not be using his right to vote.

Opposition to Yudhoyono Government

In August 2005, Wahid became one of the leaders of a political coalition called the United Awakened Archipelago (Koalisi Nusantara Bangkit Bersatu). Along with Try Sutrisno, Wiranto, Akbar Tanjung, and Megawati, this coalition criticized the policies of the Yudhoyono Government, specifically about the withdrawal of fuel subsidies which will bring the prices of fuel up.

Other activities

Gus Dur is the inspiration behind the Wahid Institute, a Jakarta-based nonprofit organization led by his daughter Yenni Wahid. He also serves as patron, member of the board of directors and senior advisor to LibForAll ("Liberty for All") Foundation, whose mission is to reduce religious extremism and discredit terrorism worldwide. Among numerous other writings, he is the author of a seminal article published in the Wall Street Journal on December 30, 2005 ("Right Islam vs. Wrong Islam") [51] in which he called on "people of good will of every faith and nation" to unite to defeat the ideology of religious hatred that underlies and animates terrorism. Wahid discussed his suspicions regarding the involvement of the Indonesian government and the TNI (Indonesia's armed forces) in the terrorist bombings on Bali, in an interview in the documentary Inside Indonesia's War on Terrorism which as aired by SBS Dateline on October 12, 2005.

In September 2006, Wahid said that he was ready to contest the 2009 Presidential Election [52] He confirmed this in March 2008, at a rally of his National Awakening Party (PKB) in Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan.[53] Gus Dur and Justice Sandra Day O’Connor, former Justice of the US Supreme Court stated their concerns about recent developments in Malaysia that seem aimed at defaming opposition leader Anwar Ibrahim and threatening him with imprisonment in a manner which is reminiscent of the campaign to defame him in 1998. They stated there are plausible motives for some to manufacture a false case against him. They also mentioned that Anwar last year brought evidence to a royal commission that enabled it to conclude that there had been improper influence exerted on judicial appointments and more recently he brought forward evidence against the current attorney-general and the current inspector-general of police for the perversion of justice in his own prosecution in 1998-99.[54]

Religious views

Wahid said:

All religions insist on peace. From this we might think that the religious struggle for peace is simple ... but it is not. The deep problem is that people use religion wrongly in pursuit of victory and triumph. This sad fact then leads to conflict with people who have different beliefs.[55]

In a 2002 interview with Foreign Correspondent, Wahid explained his respect for Israel and posed a challenging "correction" to be addressed by his fellow Muslims:

Israel believes in God. While we have a diplomatic relationship and recognising diplomatically China and Russia, which are atheist states, then it’s strange that we don’t acknowledge Israel. This is the thing that we have to correct within Islam

Soeharto

2009-07-04T20:37:00.002+07:00

Indonesia’s President Suharto, who steered the vast Southeast Asian archipelago from chaos in the late 1960s to stability and growing economic confidence, has in the past few months faced a rare challenge to his long rule. The turmoil pitted the security forces of Suharto’s tough New Order against a rising tide of disaffected youth and democratic activists, spurred by dissatisfaction over the slow pace of political change and widening economic inequality.

Suharto claims he alone can hold together this fractious island nation whose people have little in common save their Dutch colonial past. Indonesia is indeed diverse: its people speak 300 languages and dialects; its land spans more than 13,000 islands strewn along the Equator, covering a distance of roughly 3,000 miles; its people practice many religions, with Islam the dominant faith. (Ninety percent of the population is Muslim). In his 1989 autobiography Pak Harto, Suharto portrays himself as the only figure who can deliver prosperity and stave off the twin specters of Communist subversion and Islamic extremism. Without him, he claims, Indonesia could run amok again.

Known as the "Javanese King" to some Indonesians, Suharto was returned unopposed as president for a sixth five-year term in March 1993 by the People’s Consultative Assembly, of which a majority are not elected. But his health has become a key issue in recent years. Rumors that he is ill regularly surface, sending financial markets into a frenzy. Suharto said after his nomination in 1993 he did not want to be president for life. In May, he said he would serve out his current term that ends in 1988 but sidestepped a question about whether he would seek re-election.

But resentment against his rule smoldered this year after the government successfully backed moves to oust the leader of the opposition Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), Megawati Sukarnoputri, daughter of Indonesia’s founder Sukarno. Riots erupted in Jakarta in July after police evicted Megawati supporters from the PDI headquarters in the city, but the government has since firmly clamped down on dissent. Although, analysts say the riots were the culmination of public anger against socioeconomic inequality even though political turmoil was the probable source. Opponents argue that Suharto’s success in bringing economic wealth has increased the gap between the rich and poor, contributing to much tension underlying the facade of stability. Suharto’s six children, accused of obtaining wealth through their father’s influence, have been the focal point of anger. Close army associates of Suharto are also among the wealthiest people in the country, and critics say that nepotism and cronyism have characterized his rule.

The Colonial Past

The president was the second son among 11 children whose father was a minor official in the village of Kemusu. His parents divorced and Suharto was scuttled among relatives. In late 1942, he signed up for the Indonesian Army which the Japanese created during their occupation. To the young soldier, who failed in his attempt to be a bank clerk during Dutch colonial rule, Tokyo’s propaganda announcing Japan was coming to free Indonesia from its colonial masters offered a way out.

Japanese occupation was indeed Suharto’s rite of passage. the Japanese trained him as a soldier, awakened his nationalism, and instilled a world view: The Japanese vision of Dai Nippon (Greater Japan) was translated by Suharto and his revolutionary generation into Indonesia Raya (Great Indonesia). Discipline, order, ruthlessness, and progress were the attributes Suharto admired in the Japanese and embraced for himself. But the liberators soon became brutal occupiers. By 1945, Suharto was among the troops who rebelled against their Japanese master, and when the war ended and the Dutch returned to reclaim their colony, he fought with Indonesian guerillas against the Dutch. After independence, Suharto stayed in the army, rising steadily in the ranks.

In 1963, as Indonesia edged toward economic and political disaster under Sukarno, Suharto took over command of the strategic reserve forces based in Jakarta. By this time, the military was riddles with factions as Aukarno’s uneasy coalition of the armed forces, the Communist Party, and Islamic parties began to crumble. Sukarno clung to power by aligning himself with the powerful Communist Party, provoking a tense standoff between the Communists and the army.

Tension exploded into violence on October 1, 1965, when a small group of soldiers arrived at the Jakarta homes of seven senior generals. Three generals were killed immediately, one escaped, and the rest were kidnapped. After the botched coup, Suharto, then a senior general, led a counter-coup and then a military takeover. The chaos of the coup attempt was followed by a six-month anti-Communist terror. According to some accounts of that period, at least 500,000 people died. Many were jailed and Indonesia’s Communist Party (PKI) was outlawed.

Shrewd Maneuvering

Over the last 25 years, Suharto has indeed refined repression to a point where few people need disappear and torture need only be applied selectively. Bodies no longer fill rivers as they did in 1965 and 1966, though for a period between 1983 and 1985, hundreds of bodies were discovered in the countryside, and the President explained that those killed were criminals and "the corpses were left lying around as a form of shock therapy." There are far fewer political prisoners now. Human rights groups estimate there are approximately 300 political prisoners today, mostly from separatist outbursts in Irian Jaya, continuing resistance in East Timor and sporadic revivals of Islamic extremism in Sumatra. Pancasila, Suharto’s state ideology, has been effective in silencing Islam as a political force. Once the Communists were eliminated - often with Muslim groups enlisted by the army to carry out the killings - the New Order determined that Islamic fundamentalism or calls for an Islamic state were a threat. Of late, however, there have been signs that Suharto is seeking to curry favor with Islamic groups.

Suharto, the master politician, has always made economic development a holy mission. Under the influence of his advisers, including economist Widjoyo Nitisastro, Suharto subscribes to the belief that economic growth begets distribution of wealth - eventually. The paramount goal is growth. When the price of oil, the mainstay of Indonesia’s export earnings, collapsed in the mid-1980s, Widjoyo had convinced Suharto that the economy had to be revamped. The prescription: mimic Asia’s little dragons, such as South Korea and Taiwan, by stressing manufacturing and export-driven growth.

As a result, the economy has taken off. Foreign investment is soaring. The reforms have spawned a fancier range of pet projects - petrochemical plants, telecommunications contracts, toll roads - to dispense as governmental favors.

Suharto brought a large degree of unity to the multi-ethnic nation through shrewd political maneuvering and suppression of internal threats to stability. He has steered Indonesia on a balanced course of economic development, making it self-sufficient in rice and enforcing programs for birth control and poverty eradication. Economic policy has been entrusted largely to U.S. trained technocrats, who have introduced wide-ranging reforms, including opening up the financial sector and forging an industrial base. Run away inflation of the 1960s has been kept to less than 10 percent a year, and OPEC-member Indonesia has never missed repayments on a foreign debt now approaching $100 billion.

But Suharto’s government has violated human rights against domestic political opponents and in East Timor, a former Portuguese colony annexed by Jakarta in 1976 a year after it invaded the territory. He used the army to tame the country’s turbulent political development and sideline opponents. Islam, the country’s dominant religion, has also been kept in check, and Muslim extremists have been dealt with harshly. By the early 1990s, however, Suharto began to make overtures to the Muslim population, such as a highly publicized pilgrimage to Mecca. Such events as the downfall of the Philippines’ Marcos and the prosecution of South Korea’s former president Chun Doo Hwan are likely to remind Suharto that the public will not tolerate repression, even in the face of economic growth. as 1998 approaches, Suharto faces enormous pressure to address the pace of political reform.

21. CHESTER ARTHUR 1881-1885

2009-07-04T20:20:00.002+07:00

Dignified, tall, and handsome, with clean-shaven chin and side-whiskers, Chester A. Arthur "looked like a President."

The son of a Baptist preacher who had emigrated from northern Ireland, Arthur was born in Fairfield, Vermont, in 1829. He was graduated from Union College in 1848, taught school, was admitted to the bar, and practiced law in New York City. Early in the Civil War he served as Quartermaster General of the State of New York.

President Grant in 1871 appointed him Collector of the Port of New York. Arthur effectively marshalled the thousand Customs House employees under his supervision on behalf of Roscoe Conkling's Stalwart Republican machine.

Honorable in his personal life and his public career, Arthur nevertheless was a firm believer in the spoils system when it was coming under vehement attack from reformers. He insisted upon honest administration of the Customs House, but staffed it with more employees than it needed, retaining them for their merit as party workers rather than as Government officials.

In 1878 President Hayes, attempting to reform the Customs House, ousted Arthur. Conkling and his followers tried to win redress by fighting for the renomination of Grant at the 1880 Republican Convention. Failing, they reluctantly accepted the nomination of Arthur for the Vice Presidency.

During his brief tenure as Vice President, Arthur stood firmly beside Conkling in his patronage struggle against President Garfield. But when Arthur succeeded to the Presidency, he was eager to prove himself above machine politics.

Avoiding old political friends, he became a man of fashion in his garb and associates, and often was seen with the elite of Washington, New York, and Newport. To the indignation of the Stalwart Republicans, the onetime Collector of the Port of New York became, as President, a champion of civil service reform. Public pressure, heightened by the assassination of Garfield, forced an unwieldy Congress to heed the President.

In 1883 Congress passed the Pendleton Act, which established a bipartisan Civil Service Commission, forbade levying political assessments against officeholders, and provided for a "classified system" that made certain Government positions obtainable only through competitive written examinations. The system protected employees against removal for political reasons.

Acting independently of party dogma, Arthur also tried to lower tariff rates so the Government would not be embarrassed by annual surpluses of revenue. Congress raised about as many rates as it trimmed, but Arthur signed the Tariff Act of 1883. Aggrieved Westerners and Southerners looked to the Democratic Party for redress, and the tariff began to emerge as a major political issue between the two parties.

The Arthur Administration enacted the first general Federal immigration law. Arthur approved a measure in 1882 excluding paupers, criminals, and lunatics. Congress suspended Chinese immigration for ten years, later making the restriction permanent.

Arthur demonstrated as President that he was above factions within the Republican Party, if indeed not above the party itself. Perhaps in part his reason was the well-kept secret he had known since a year after he succeeded to the Presidency, that he was suffering from a fatal kidney disease. He kept himself in the running for the Presidential nomination in 1884 in order not to appear that he feared defeat, but was not renominated, and died in 1886. Publisher Alexander K. McClure recalled, "No man ever entered the Presidency so profoundly and widely distrusted, and no one ever retired ... more generally respected."

20. JAMES GARFIELD 1881

2009-07-04T20:17:00.000+07:00

As the last of the log cabin Presidents, James A. Garfield attacked political corruption and won back for the Presidency a measure of prestige it had lost during the Reconstruction period.

He was born in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, in 1831. Fatherless at two, he later drove canal boat teams, somehow earning enough money for an education. He was graduated from Williams College in Massachusetts in 1856, and he returned to the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute (later Hiram College) in Ohio as a classics professor. Within a year he was made its president.

Garfield was elected to the Ohio Senate in 1859 as a Republican. During the secession crisis, he advocated coercing the seceding states back into the Union.

In 1862, when Union military victories had been few, he successfully led a brigade at Middle Creek, Kentucky, against Confederate troops. At 31, Garfield became a brigadier general, two years later a major general of volunteers.

Meanwhile, in 1862, Ohioans elected him to Congress. President Lincoln persuaded him to resign his commission: It was easier to find major generals than to obtain effective Republicans for Congress. Garfield repeatedly won re-election for 18 years, and became the leading Republican in the House.

At the 1880 Republican Convention, Garfield failed to win the Presidential nomination for his friend John Sherman. Finally, on the 36th ballot, Garfield himself became the "dark horse" nominee.

By a margin of only 10,000 popular votes, Garfield defeated the Democratic nominee, Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock.

As President, Garfield strengthened Federal authority over the New York Customs House, stronghold of Senator Roscoe Conkling, who was leader of the Stalwart Republicans and dispenser of patronage in New York. When Garfield submitted to the Senate a list of appointments including many of Conkling's friends, he named Conkling's arch-rival William H. Robertson to run the Customs House. Conkling contested the nomination, tried to persuade the Senate to block it, and appealed to the Republican caucus to compel its withdrawal.

But Garfield would not submit: "This...will settle the question whether the President is registering clerk of the Senate or the Executive of the United States.... shall the principal port of entry ... be under the control of the administration or under the local control of a factional senator."

Conkling maneuvered to have the Senate confirm Garfield's uncontested nominations and adjourn without acting on Robertson. Garfield countered by withdrawing all nominations except Robertson's; the Senators would have to confirm him or sacrifice all the appointments of Conkling's friends.
In a final desperate move, Conkling and his fellow-Senator from New York resigned, confident that their legislature would vindicate their stand and re-elect them. Instead, the legislature elected two other men; the Senate confirmed Robertson. Garfield's victory was complete.

In foreign affairs, Garfield's Secretary of State invited all American republics to a conference to meet in Washington in 1882. But the conference never took place. On July 2, 1881, in a Washington railroad station, an embittered attorney who had sought a consular post shot the President.

Mortally wounded, Garfield lay in the White House for weeks. Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone, tried unsuccessfully to find the bullet with an induction-balance electrical device which he had designed. On September 6, Garfield was taken to the New Jersey seaside. For a few days he seemed to be recuperating, but on September 19, 1881, he died from an infection and internal hemorrhage.

19. RUTHERFORD B. HAYES 1877-1881

2009-07-04T20:13:00.001+07:00

Beneficiary of the most fiercely disputed election in American history, Rutherford B. Hayes brought to the Executive Mansion dignity, honesty, and moderate reform.

To the delight of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, Lucy Webb Hayes carried out her husband's orders to banish wines and liquors from the White House.

Born in Ohio in 1822, Hayes was educated at Kenyon College and Harvard Law School. After five years of law practice in Lower Sandusky, he moved to Cincinnati, where he flourished as a young Whig lawyer.

He fought in the Civil War, was wounded in action, and rose to the rank of brevet major general. While he was still in the Army, Cincinnati Republicans ran him for the House of Representatives. He accepted the nomination, but would not campaign, explaining, "an officer fit for duty who at this crisis would abandon his post to electioneer... ought to be scalped."

Elected by a heavy majority, Hayes entered Congress in December 1865, troubled by the "Rebel influences ... ruling the White House." Between 1867 and 1876 he served three terms as Governor of Ohio.

Safe liberalism, party loyalty, and a good war record made Hayes an acceptable Republican candidate in 1876. He opposed Governor Samuel J. Tilden of New York.

Although a galaxy of famous Republican speakers, and even Mark Twain, stumped for Hayes, he expected the Democrats to win. When the first returns seemed to confirm this, Hayes went to bed, believing he had lost. But in New York, Republican National Chairman Zachariah Chandler, aware of a loophole, wired leaders to stand firm: "Hayes has 185 votes and is elected." The popular vote apparently was 4,300,000 for Tilden to 4,036,000 for Hayes. Hayes's election depended upon contested electoral votes in Louisiana, South Carolina, and Florida. If all the disputed electoral votes went to Hayes, he would win; a single one would elect Tilden.

Months of uncertainty followed. In January 1877 Congress established an Electoral Commission to decide the dispute. The commission, made up of eight Republicans and seven Democrats, determined all the contests in favor of Hayes by eight to seven. The final electoral vote: 185 to 184.

Northern Republicans had been promising southern Democrats at least one Cabinet post, Federal patronage, subsidies for internal improvements, and withdrawal of troops from Louisiana and South Carolina.

Hayes insisted that his appointments must be made on merit, not political considerations. For his Cabinet he chose men of high caliber, but outraged many Republicans because one member was an ex-Confederate and another had bolted the party as a Liberal Republican in 1872.

Hayes pledged protection of the rights of Negroes in the South, but at the same time advocated the restoration of "wise, honest, and peaceful local self-government." This meant the withdrawal of troops. Hayes hoped such conciliatory policies would lead to the building of a "new Republican party" in the South, to which white businessmen and conservatives would rally.

Many of the leaders of the new South did indeed favor Republican economic policies and approved of Hayes's financial conservatism, but they faced annihilation at the polls if they were to join the party of Reconstruction. Hayes and his Republican successors were persistent in their efforts but could not win over the "solid South."

Hayes had announced in advance that he would serve only one term, and retired to Spiegel Grove, his home in Fremont, Ohio, in 1881. He died in 1893.

18. ULYSSES S. GRANT 1869-1877

2009-07-04T20:11:00.001+07:00

Late in the administration of Andrew Johnson, Gen. Ulysses S. Grant quarreled with the President and aligned himself with the Radical Republicans. He was, as the symbol of Union victory during the Civil War, their logical candidate for President in 1868.

When he was elected, the American people hoped for an end to turmoil. Grant provided neither vigor nor reform. Looking to Congress for direction, he seemed bewildered. One visitor to the White House noted "a puzzled pathos, as of a man with a problem before him of which he does not understand the terms."

Born in 1822, Grant was the son of an Ohio tanner. He went to West Point rather against his will and graduated in the middle of his class. In the Mexican War he fought under Gen. Zachary Taylor.

At the outbreak of the Civil War, Grant was working in his father's leather store in Galena, Illinois. He was appointed by the Governor to command an unruly volunteer regiment. Grant whipped it into shape and by September 1861 he had risen to the rank of brigadier general of volunteers.

He sought to win control of the Mississippi Valley. In February 1862 he took Fort Henry and attacked Fort Donelson. When the Confederate commander asked for terms, Grant replied, "No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted." The Confederates surrendered, and President Lincoln promoted Grant to major general of volunteers.

At Shiloh in April, Grant fought one of the bloodiest battles in the West and came out less well. President Lincoln fended off demands for his removal by saying, "I can't spare this man--he fights."

For his next major objective, Grant maneuvered and fought skillfully to win Vicksburg, the key city on the Mississippi, and thus cut the Confederacy in two. Then he broke the Confederate hold on Chattanooga.

Lincoln appointed him General-in-Chief in March 1864. Grant directed Sherman to drive through the South while he himself, with the Army of the Potomac, pinned down Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia.

Finally, on April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court House, Lee surrendered. Grant wrote out magnanimous terms of surrender that would prevent treason trials.

As President, Grant presided over the Government much as he had run the Army. Indeed he brought part of his Army staff to the White House.

Although a man of scrupulous honesty, Grant as President accepted handsome presents from admirers. Worse, he allowed himself to be seen with two speculators, Jay Gould and James Fisk. When Grant realized their scheme to corner the market in gold, he authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to sell enough gold to wreck their plans, but the speculation had already wrought havoc with business.

During his campaign for re-election in 1872, Grant was attacked by Liberal Republican reformers. He called them "narrow-headed men," their eyes so close together that "they can look out of the same gimlet hole without winking." The General's friends in the Republican Party came to be known proudly as "the Old Guard."

Grant allowed Radical Reconstruction to run its course in the South, bolstering it at times with military force.

After retiring from the Presidency, Grant became a partner in a financial firm, which went bankrupt. About that time he learned that he had cancer of the throat. He started writing his recollections to pay off his debts and provide for his family, racing against death to produce a memoir that ultimately earned nearly $450,000. Soon after completing the last page, in 1885, he died.

17. ANDREW JOHNSON 1865-1869

2009-07-04T20:08:00.000+07:00

With the Assassination of Lincoln, the Presidency fell upon an old-fashioned southern Jacksonian Democrat of pronounced states' rights views. Although an honest and honorable man, Andrew Johnson was one of the most unfortunate of Presidents. Arrayed against him were the Radical Republicans in Congress, brilliantly led and ruthless in their tactics. Johnson was no match for them.

Born in Raleigh, North Carolina, in 1808, Johnson grew up in poverty. He was apprenticed to a tailor as a boy, but ran away. He opened a tailor shop in Greeneville, Tennessee, married Eliza McCardle, and participated in debates at the local academy.

Entering politics, he became an adept stump speaker, championing the common man and vilifying the plantation aristocracy. As a Member of the House of Representatives and the Senate in the 1840's and '50's, he advocated a homestead bill to provide a free farm for the poor man.

During the secession crisis, Johnson remained in the Senate even when Tennessee seceded, which made him a hero in the North and a traitor in the eyes of most Southerners. In 1862 President Lincoln appointed him Military Governor of Tennessee, and Johnson used the state as a laboratory for reconstruction. In 1864 the Republicans, contending that their National Union Party was for all loyal men, nominated Johnson, a Southerner and a Democrat, for Vice President.

After Lincoln's death, President Johnson proceeded to reconstruct the former Confederate States while Congress was not in session in 1865. He pardoned all who would take an oath of allegiance, but required leaders and men of wealth to obtain special Presidential pardons.

By the time Congress met in December 1865, most southern states were reconstructed, slavery was being abolished, but "black codes" to regulate the freedmen were beginning to appear.

Radical Republicans in Congress moved vigorously to change Johnson's program. They gained the support of northerners who were dismayed to see Southerners keeping many prewar leaders and imposing many prewar restrictions upon Negroes.

The Radicals' first step was to refuse to seat any Senator or Representative from the old Confederacy. Next they passed measures dealing with the former slaves. Johnson vetoed the legislation. The Radicals mustered enough votes in Congress to pass legislation over his veto--the first time that Congress had overridden a President on an important bill. They passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which established Negroes as American citizens and forbade discrimination against them.

A few months later Congress submitted to the states the Fourteenth Amendment, which specified that no state should "deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law."

All the former Confederate States except Tennessee refused to ratify the amendment; further, there were two bloody race riots in the South. Speaking in the Middle West, Johnson faced hostile audiences. The Radical Republicans won an overwhelming victory in Congressional elections that fall.

In March 1867, the Radicals effected their own plan of Reconstruction, again placing southern states under military rule. They passed laws placing restrictions upon the President. When Johnson allegedly violated one of these, the Tenure of Office Act, by dismissing Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, the House voted eleven articles of impeachment against him. He was tried by the Senate in the spring of 1868 and acquitted by one vote.

In 1875, Tennessee returned Johnson to the Senate. He died a few months later.

16. ABRAHAM LINCOLN 1861-1865

2009-07-04T20:02:00.001+07:00

Lincoln warned the South in his Inaugural Address: "In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow countrymen, and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The government will not assail you.... You have no oath registered in Heaven to destroy the government, while I shall have the most solemn one to preserve, protect and defend it."

Lincoln thought secession illegal, and was willing to use force to defend Federal law and the Union. When Confederate batteries fired on Fort Sumter and forced its surrender, he called on the states for 75,000 volunteers. Four more slave states joined the Confederacy but four remained within the Union. The Civil War had begun.

The son of a Kentucky frontiersman, Lincoln had to struggle for a living and for learning. Five months before receiving his party's nomination for President, he sketched his life:

"I was born Feb. 12, 1809, in Hardin County, Kentucky. My parents were both born in Virginia, of undistinguished families--second families, perhaps I should say. My mother, who died in my tenth year, was of a family of the name of Hanks.... My father ... removed from Kentucky to ... Indiana, in my eighth year.... It was a wild region, with many bears and other wild animals still in the woods. There I grew up.... Of course when I came of age I did not know much. Still somehow, I could read, write, and cipher ... but that was all."

Lincoln made extraordinary efforts to attain knowledge while working on a farm, splitting rails for fences, and keeping store at New Salem, Illinois. He was a captain in the Black Hawk War, spent eight years in the Illinois legislature, and rode the circuit of courts for many years. His law partner said of him, "His ambition was a little engine that knew no rest."

He married Mary Todd, and they had four boys, only one of whom lived to maturity. In 1858 Lincoln ran against Stephen A. Douglas for Senator. He lost the election, but in debating with Douglas he gained a national reputation that won him the Republican nomination for President in 1860.

As President, he built the Republican Party into a strong national organization. Further, he rallied most of the northern Democrats to the Union cause. On January 1, 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation that declared forever free those slaves within the Confederacy.

Lincoln never let the world forget that the Civil War involved an even larger issue. This he stated most movingly in dedicating the military cemetery at Gettysburg: "that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain--that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom--and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth."

Lincoln won re-election in 1864, as Union military triumphs heralded an end to the war. In his planning for peace, the President was flexible and generous, encouraging Southerners to lay down their arms and join speedily in reunion.

The spirit that guided him was clearly that of his Second Inaugural Address, now inscribed on one wall of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D. C.: "With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds.... "

On Good Friday, April 14, 1865, Lincoln was assassinated at Ford's Theatre in Washington by John Wilkes Booth, an actor, who somehow thought he was helping the South. The opposite was the result, for with Lincoln's death, the possibility of peace with magnanimity died.

15. JAMES BUCHANAN 1857-1861

2009-07-04T20:00:00.001+07:00

Tall, stately, stiffly formal in the high stock he wore around his jowls, James Buchanan was the only President who never married.

Presiding over a rapidly dividing Nation, Buchanan grasped inadequately the political realities of the time. Relying on constitutional doctrines to close the widening rift over slavery, he failed to understand that the North would not accept constitutional arguments which favored the South. Nor could he realize how sectionalism had realigned political parties: the Democrats split; the Whigs were destroyed, giving rise to the Republicans.

Born into a well-to-do Pennsylvania family in 1791, Buchanan, a graduate of Dickinson College, was gifted as a debater and learned in the law.

He was elected five times to the House of Representatives; then, after an interlude as Minister to Russia, served for a decade in the Senate. He became Polk's Secretary of State and Pierce's Minister to Great Britain. Service abroad helped to bring him the Democratic nomination in 1856 because it had exempted him from involvement in bitter domestic controversies.

As President-elect, Buchanan thought the crisis would disappear if he maintained a sectional balance in his appointments and could persuade the people to accept constitutional law as the Supreme Court interpreted it. The Court was considering the legality of restricting slavery in the territories, and two justices hinted to Buchanan what the decision would be.

Thus, in his Inaugural the President referred to the territorial question as "happily, a matter of but little practical importance" since the Supreme Court was about to settle it "speedily and finally."

Two days later Chief Justice Roger B. Taney delivered the Dred Scott decision, asserting that Congress had no constitutional power to deprive persons of their property rights in slaves in the territories. Southerners were delighted, but the decision created a furor in the North.

Buchanan decided to end the troubles in Kansas by urging the admission of the territory as a slave state. Although he directed his Presidential authority to this goal, he further angered the Republicans and alienated members of his own party. Kansas remained a territory.

When Republicans won a plurality in the House in 1858, every significant bill they passed fell before southern votes in the Senate or a Presidential veto. The Federal Government reached a stalemate.

Sectional strife rose to such a pitch in 1860 that the Democratic Party split into northern and southern wings, each nominating its own candidate for the Presidency. Consequently, when the Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln, it was a foregone conclusion that he would be elected even though his name appeared on no southern ballot. Rather than accept a Republican administration, the southern "fire-eaters" advocated secession.

President Buchanan, dismayed and hesitant, denied the legal right of states to secede but held that the Federal Government legally could not prevent them. He hoped for compromise, but secessionist leaders did not want compromise.

Then Buchanan took a more militant tack. As several Cabinet members resigned, he appointed northerners, and sent the Star of the West to carry reinforcements to Fort Sumter. On January 9, 1861, the vessel was far away.

Buchanan reverted to a policy of inactivity that continued until he left office. In March 1861 he retired to his Pennsylvania home Wheatland--where he died seven years later--leaving his successor to resolve the frightful issue facing the Nation.

14. FRANKLIN PIERCE 1853-1857

2009-07-04T19:57:00.001+07:00

Franklin Pierce became President at a time of apparent tranquility. The United States, by virtue of the Compromise of 1850, seemed to have weathered its sectional storm. By pursuing the recommendations of southern advisers, Pierce--a New Englander--hoped to prevent still another outbreak of that storm. But his policies, far from preserving calm, hastened the disruption of the Union.

Born in Hillsborough, New Hampshire, in 1804, Pierce attended Bowdoin College. After graduation he studied law, then entered politics. At 24 he was elected to the New Hampshire legislature; two years later he became its Speaker. During the 1830's he went to Washington, first as a Representative, then as a Senator.

Pierce, after serving in the Mexican War, was proposed by New Hampshire friends for the Presidential nomination in 1852. At the Democratic Convention, the delegates agreed easily enough upon a platform pledging undeviating support of the Compromise of 1850 and hostility to any efforts to agitate the slavery question. But they balloted 48 times and eliminated all the well-known candidates before nominating Pierce, a true "dark horse."

Probably because the Democrats stood more firmly for the Compromise than the Whigs, and because Whig candidate Gen. Winfield Scott was suspect in the South, Pierce won with a narrow margin of popular votes.

Two months before he took office, he and his wife saw their eleven-year-old son killed when their train was wrecked. Grief-stricken, Pierce entered the Presidency nervously exhausted.

In his Inaugural he proclaimed an era of peace and prosperity at home, and vigor in relations with other nations. The United States might have to acquire additional possessions for the sake of its own security, he pointed out, and would not be deterred by "any timid forebodings of evil."

Pierce had only to make gestures toward expansion to excite the wrath of northerners, who accused him of acting as a cat's-paw of Southerners eager to extend slavery into other areas. Therefore he aroused apprehension when he pressured Great Britain to relinquish its special interests along part of the Central American coast, and even more when he tried to persuade Spain to sell Cuba.

But the most violent renewal of the storm stemmed from the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise and reopened the question of slavery in the West. This measure, the handiwork of Senator Stephen A. Douglas, grew in part out of his desire to promote a railroad from Chicago to California through Nebraska. Already Secretary of War Jefferson Davis, advocate of a southern transcontinental route, had persuaded Pierce to send James Gadsden to Mexico to buy land for a southern railroad. He purchased the area now comprising southern Arizona and part of southern New Mexico for $10,000,000.

Douglas's proposal, to organize western territories through which a railroad might run, caused extreme trouble. Douglas provided in his bills that the residents of the new territories could decide the slavery question for themselves. The result was a rush into Kansas, as southerners and northerners vied for control of the territory. Shooting broke out, and "bleeding Kansas" became a prelude to the Civil War.

By the end of his administration, Pierce could claim "a peaceful condition of things in Kansas." But, to his disappointment, the Democrats refused to renominate him, turning to the less controversial Buchanan. Pierce returned to New Hampshire, leaving his successor to face the rising fury of the sectional whirlwind. He died in 1869.

13. MILLARD FILLMORE 1850-1853

2009-07-04T19:54:00.002+07:00

In his rise from a log cabin to wealth and the White House, Millard Fillmore demonstrated that through methodical industry and some competence an uninspiring man could make the American dream come true.

Born in the Finger Lakes country of New York in 1800, Fillmore as a youth endured the privations of frontier life. He worked on his father's farm, and at 15 was apprenticed to a cloth dresser. He attended one-room schools, and fell in love with the redheaded teacher, Abigail Powers, who later became his wife.

In 1823 he was admitted to the bar; seven years later he moved his law practice to Buffalo. As an associate of the Whig politician Thurlow Weed, Fillmore held state office and for eight years was a member of the House of Representatives. In 1848, while Comptroller of New York, he was elected Vice President.

Fillmore presided over the Senate during the months of nerve-wracking debates over the Compromise of 1850. He made no public comment on the merits of the compromise proposals, but a few days before President Taylor's death, he intimated to him that if there should be a tie vote on Henry Clay's bill, he would vote in favor of it.

Thus the sudden accession of Fillmore to the Presidency in July 1850 brought an abrupt political shift in the administration. Taylor's Cabinet resigned and President Fillmore at once appointed Daniel Webster to be Secretary of State, thus proclaiming his alliance with the moderate Whigs who favored the Compromise.

A bill to admit California still aroused all the violent arguments for and against the extension of slavery, without any progress toward settling the major issues.

Clay, exhausted, left Washington to recuperate, throwing leadership upon Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois. At this critical juncture, President Fillmore announced in favor of the Compromise. On August 6, 1850, he sent a message to Congress recommending that Texas be paid to abandon her claims to part of New Mexico.

This helped influence a critical number of northern Whigs in Congress away from their insistence upon the Wilmot Proviso--the stipulation that all land gained by the Mexican War must be closed to slavery.

Douglas's effective strategy in Congress combined with Fillmore's pressure from the White House to give impetus to the Compromise movement. Breaking up Clay's single legislative package, Douglas presented five separate bills to the Senate:

1. Admit California as a free state.
2. Settle the Texas boundary and compensate her.
3. Grant territorial status to New Mexico.
4. Place Federal officers at the disposal of slaveholders seeking fugitives.
5. Abolish the slave trade in the District of Columbia.

Each measure obtained a majority, and by September 20, President Fillmore had signed them into law. Webster wrote, "I can now sleep of nights."

Some of the more militant northern Whigs remained irreconcilable, refusing to forgive Fillmore for having signed the Fugitive Slave Act. They helped deprive him of the Presidential nomination in 1852.

Within a few years it was apparent that although the Compromise had been intended to settle the slavery controversy, it served rather as an uneasy sectional truce.

As the Whig Party disintegrated in the 1850's, Fillmore refused to join the Republican Party; but, instead, in 1856 accepted the nomination for President of the Know Nothing, or American, Party. Throughout the Civil War he opposed President Lincoln and during Reconstruction supported President Johnson. He died in 1874.

12. ZACHARY TAYLOR 1849-1850

2009-07-04T19:46:00.001+07:00

Northerners and Southerners disputed sharply whether the territories wrested from Mexico should be opened to slavery, and some Southerners even threatened secession. Standing firm, Zachary Taylor was prepared to hold the Union together by armed force rather than by compromise.

Born in Virginia in 1784, he was taken as an infant to Kentucky and raised on a plantation. He was a career officer in the Army, but his talk was most often of cotton raising. His home was in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and he owned a plantation in Mississippi.

But Taylor did not defend slavery or southern sectionalism; 40 years in the Army made him a strong nationalist.

He spent a quarter of a century policing the frontiers against Indians. In the Mexican War he won major victories at Monterrey and Buena Vista.

President Polk, disturbed by General Taylor's informal habits of command and perhaps his Whiggery as well, kept him in northern Mexico and sent an expedition under Gen. Winfield Scott to capture Mexico City. Taylor, incensed, thought that "the battle of Buena Vista opened the road to the city of Mexico and the halls of Montezuma, that others might revel in them."

"Old Rough and Ready's" homespun ways were political assets. His long military record would appeal to northerners; his ownership of 100 slaves would lure southern votes. He had not committed himself on troublesome issues. The Whigs nominated him to run against the Democratic candidate, Lewis Cass, who favored letting the residents of territories decide for themselves whether they wanted slavery.

In protest against Taylor the slaveholder and Cass the advocate of "squatter sovereignty," northerners who opposed extension of slavery into territories formed a Free Soil Party and nominated Martin Van Buren. In a close election, the Free Soilers pulled enough votes away from Cass to elect Taylor.

Although Taylor had subscribed to Whig principles of legislative leadership, he was not inclined to be a puppet of Whig leaders in Congress. He acted at times as though he were above parties and politics. As disheveled as always, Taylor tried to run his administration in the same rule-of-thumb fashion with which he had fought Indians.

Traditionally, people could decide whether they wanted slavery when they drew up new state constitutions. Therefore, to end the dispute over slavery in new areas, Taylor urged settlers in New Mexico and California to draft constitutions and apply for statehood, bypassing the territorial stage.

Southerners were furious, since neither state constitution was likely to permit slavery; Members of Congress were dismayed, since they felt the President was usurping their policy-making prerogatives. In addition, Taylor's solution ignored several acute side issues: the northern dislike of the slave market operating in the District of Columbia; and the southern demands for a more stringent fugitive slave law.

In February 1850 President Taylor had held a stormy conference with southern leaders who threatened secession. He told them that if necessary to enforce the laws, he personally would lead the Army. Persons "taken in rebellion against the Union, he would hang ... with less reluctance than he had hanged deserters and spies in Mexico." He never wavered.

Then events took an unexpected turn. After participating in ceremonies at the Washington Monument on a blistering July 4, Taylor fell ill; within five days he was dead. After his death, the forces of compromise triumphed, but the war Taylor had been willing to face came 11 years later. In it, his only son Richard served as a general in the Confederate Army.

11. JAMES K. POLK 1845-1849

2009-07-04T11:49:00.005+07:00

Often referred to as the first "dark horse" President, James K. Polk was the last of the Jacksonians to sit in the White House, and the last strong President until the Civil War.

He was born in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, in 1795. Studious and industrious, Polk was graduated with honors in 1818 from the University of North Carolina. As a young lawyer he entered politics, served in the Tennessee legislature, and became a friend of Andrew Jackson.

In the House of Representatives, Polk was a chief lieutenant of Jackson in his Bank war. He served as Speaker between 1835 and 1839, leaving to become Governor of Tennessee.

Until circumstances raised Polk's ambitions, he was a leading contender for the Democratic nomination for Vice President in 1844. Both Martin Van Buren, who had been expected to win the Democratic nomination for President, and Henry Clay, who was to be the Whig nominee, tried to take the expansionist issue out of the campaign by declaring themselves opposed to the annexation of Texas. Polk, however, publicly asserted that Texas should be "re-annexed" and all of Oregon "re-occupied."

The aged Jackson, correctly sensing that the people favored expansion, urged the choice of a candidate committed to the Nation's "Manifest Destiny." This view prevailed at the Democratic Convention, where Polk was nominated on the ninth ballot.

"Who is James K. Polk?" Whigs jeered. Democrats replied Polk was the candidate who stood for expansion. He linked the Texas issue, popular in the South, with the Oregon question, attractive to the North. Polk also favored acquiring California.

Even before he could take office, Congress passed a joint resolution offering annexation to Texas. In so doing they bequeathed Polk the possibility of war with Mexico, which soon severed diplomatic relations.

In his stand on Oregon, the President seemed to be risking war with Great Britain also. The 1844 Democratic platform claimed the entire Oregon area, from the California boundary northward to a latitude of 54'40', the southern boundary of Russian Alaska. Extremists proclaimed "Fifty-four forty or fight," but Polk, aware of diplomatic realities, knew that no course short of war was likely to get all of Oregon. Happily, neither he nor the British wanted a war.

He offered to settle by extending the Canadian boundary, along the 49th parallel, from the Rockies to the Pacific. When the British minister declined, Polk reasserted the American claim to the entire area. Finally, the British settled for the 49th parallel, except for the southern tip of Vancouver Island. The treaty was signed in 1846.

Acquisition of California proved far more difficult. Polk sent an envoy to offer Mexico up to $20,000,000, plus settlement of damage claims owed to Americans, in return for California and the New Mexico country. Since no Mexican leader could cede half his country and still stay in power, Polk's envoy was not received. To bring pressure, Polk sent Gen. Zachary Taylor to the disputed area on the Rio Grande.

To Mexican troops this was aggression, and they attacked Taylor's forces.

Congress declared war and, despite much Northern opposition, supported the military operations. American forces won repeated victories and occupied Mexico City. Finally, in 1848, Mexico ceded New Mexico and California in return for $15,000,000 and American assumption of the damage claims.

President Polk added a vast area to the United States, but its acquisition precipitated a bitter quarrel between the North and the South over expansion of slavery.

Polk, leaving office with his health undermined from hard work, died in June 1849.

10. JOHN TYLER 1841-1845

2009-06-28T21:46:00.000+07:00

Dubbed "His Accidency" by his detractors, John Tyler was the first Vice President to be elevated to the office of President by the death of his predecessor.

Born in Virginia in 1790, he was raised believing that the Constitution must be strictly construed. He never wavered from this conviction. He attended the College of William and Mary and studied law.

Serving in the House of Representatives from 1816 to 1821, Tyler voted against most nationalist legislation and opposed the Missouri Compromise. After leaving the House he served as Governor of Virginia. As a Senator he reluctantly supported Jackson for President as a choice of evils. Tyler soon joined the states' rights Southerners in Congress who banded with Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and their newly formed Whig party opposing President Jackson.

The Whigs nominated Tyler for Vice President in 1840, hoping for support from southern states'-righters who could not stomach Jacksonian Democracy. The slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too" implied flagwaving nationalism plus a dash of southern sectionalism.

Clay, intending to keep party leadership in his own hands, minimized his nationalist views temporarily; Webster proclaimed himself "a Jeffersonian Democrat." But after the election, both men tried to dominate "Old Tippecanoe."

Suddenly President Harrison was dead, and "Tyler too" was in the White House. At first the Whigs were not too disturbed, although Tyler insisted upon assuming the full powers of a duly elected President. He even delivered an Inaugural Address, but it seemed full of good Whig doctrine. Whigs, optimistic that Tyler would accept their program, soon were disillusioned.

Tyler was ready to compromise on the banking question, but Clay would not budge. He would not accept Tyler's "exchequer system," and Tyler vetoed Clay's bill to establish a National Bank with branches in several states. A similar bank bill was passed by Congress. But again, on states' rights grounds, Tyler vetoed it.

In retaliation, the Whigs expelled Tyler from their party. All the Cabinet resigned but Secretary of State Webster. A year later when Tyler vetoed a tariff bill, the first impeachment resolution against a President was introduced in the House of Representatives. A committee headed by Representative John Quincy Adams reported that the President had misused the veto power, but the resolution failed.

Despite their differences, President Tyler and the Whig Congress enacted much positive legislation. The "Log-Cabin" bill enabled a settler to claim 160 acres of land before it was offered publicly for sale, and later pay $1.25 an acre for it.

In 1842 Tyler did sign a tariff bill protecting northern manufacturers. The Webster-Ashburton treaty ended a Canadian boundary dispute; in 1845 Texas was annexed.

The administration of this states'-righter strengthened the Presidency. But it also increased sectional cleavage that led toward civil war. By the end of his term, Tyler had replaced the original Whig Cabinet with southern conservatives. In 1844 Calhoun became Secretary of State. Later these men returned to the Democratic Party, committed to the preservation of states' rights, planter interests, and the institution of slavery. Whigs became more representative of northern business and farming interests.

When the first southern states seceded in 1861, Tyler led a compromise movement; failing, he worked to create the Southern Confederacy. He died in 1862, a member of the Confederate House of Representatives.

9. WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON 1841

2009-05-26T21:32:00.002+07:00

"Give him a barrel of hard cider and settle a pension of two thousand a year on him, and my word for it," a Democratic newspaper foolishly gibed, "he will sit ... by the side of a 'sea coal' fire, and study moral philosophy. " The Whigs, seizing on this political misstep, in 1840 presented their candidate William Henry Harrison as a simple frontier Indian fighter, living in a log cabin and drinking cider, in sharp contrast to an aristocratic champagne-sipping Van Buren.

Harrison was in fact a scion of the Virginia planter aristocracy. He was born at Berkeley in 1773. He studied classics and history at Hampden-Sydney College, then began the study of medicine in Richmond.

Suddenly, that same year, 1791, Harrison switched interests. He obtained a commission as ensign in the First Infantry of the Regular Army, and headed to the Northwest, where he spent much of his life.

In the campaign against the Indians, Harrison served as aide-de-camp to General "Mad Anthony" Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, which opened most of the Ohio area to settlement. After resigning from the Army in 1798, he became Secretary of the Northwest Territory, was its first delegate to Congress, and helped obtain legislation dividing the Territory into the Northwest and Indiana Territories. In 1801 he became Governor of the Indiana Territory, serving 12 years.

His prime task as governor was to obtain title to Indian lands so settlers could press forward into the wilderness. When the Indians retaliated, Harrison was responsible for defending the settlements.

The threat against settlers became serious in 1809. An eloquent and energetic chieftain, Tecumseh, with his religious brother, the Prophet, began to strengthen an Indian confederation to prevent further encroachment. In 1811 Harrison received permission to attack the confederacy.

While Tecumseh was away seeking more allies, Harrison led about a thousand men toward the Prophet's town. Suddenly, before dawn on November 7, the Indians attacked his camp on Tippecanoe River. After heavy fighting, Harrison repulsed them, but suffered 190 dead and wounded.

The Battle of Tippecanoe, upon which Harrison's fame was to rest, disrupted Tecumseh's confederacy but failed to diminish Indian raids. By the spring of 1812, they were again terrorizing the frontier.

In the War of 1812 Harrison won more military laurels when he was given the command of the Army in the Northwest with the rank of brigadier general. At the Battle of the Thames, north of Lake Erie, on October 5, 1813, he defeated the combined British and Indian forces, and killed Tecumseh. The Indians scattered, never again to offer serious resistance in what was then called the Northwest.

Thereafter Harrison returned to civilian life; the Whigs, in need of a national hero, nominated him for President in 1840. He won by a majority of less than 150,000, but swept the Electoral College, 234 to 60.

When he arrived in Washington in February 1841, Harrison let Daniel Webster edit his Inaugural Address, ornate with classical allusions. Webster obtained some deletions, boasting in a jolly fashion that he had killed "seventeen Roman proconsuls as dead as smelts, every one of them."

Webster had reason to be pleased, for while Harrison was nationalistic in his outlook, he emphasized in his Inaugural that he would be obedient to the will of the people as expressed through Congress.

But before he had been in office a month, he caught a cold that developed into pneumonia. On April 4, 1841, he died--the first President to die in office--and with him died the Whig program.

8. MARTIN VAN BUREN 1837-1841

2009-05-26T21:21:00.001+07:00

Only about 5 feet, 6 inches tall, but trim and erect, Martin Van Buren dressed fastidiously. His impeccable appearance belied his amiability--and his humble background. Of Dutch descent, he was born in 1782, the son of a tavernkeeper and farmer, in Kinderhook, New York.

As a young lawyer he became involved in New York politics. As leader of the "Albany Regency," an effective New York political organization, he shrewdly dispensed public offices and bounty in a fashion calculated to bring votes. Yet he faithfully fulfilled official duties, and in 1821 was elected to the United States Senate.

By 1827 he had emerged as the principal northern leader for Andrew Jackson. President Jackson rewarded Van Buren by appointing him Secretary of State. As the Cabinet Members appointed at John C. Calhoun's recommendation began to demonstrate only secondary loyalty to Jackson, Van Buren emerged as the President's most trusted adviser. Jackson referred to him as, "a true man with no guile."

The rift in the Cabinet became serious because of Jackson's differences with Calhoun, a Presidential aspirant. Van Buren suggested a way out of an eventual impasse: he and Secretary of War Eaton resigned, so that Calhoun men would also resign. Jackson appointed a new Cabinet, and sought again to reward Van Buren by appointing him Minister to Great Britain. Vice President Calhoun, as President of the Senate, cast the deciding vote against the appointment--and made a martyr of Van Buren.

The "Little Magician" was elected Vice President on the Jacksonian ticket in 1832, and won the Presidency in 1836.

Van Buren devoted his Inaugural Address to a discourse upon the American experiment as an example to the rest of the world. The country was prosperous, but less than three months later the panic of 1837 punctured the prosperity.

Basically the trouble was the 19th-century cyclical economy of "boom and bust," which was following its regular pattern, but Jackson's financial measures contributed to the crash. His destruction of the Second Bank of the United States had removed restrictions upon the inflationary practices of some state banks; wild speculation in lands, based on easy bank credit, had swept the West. To end this speculation, Jackson in 1836 had issued a Specie Circular requiring that lands be purchased with hard money--gold or silver.

In 1837 the panic began. Hundreds of banks and businesses failed. Thousands lost their lands. For about five years the United States was wracked by the worst depression thus far in its history.

Programs applied decades later to alleviate economic crisis eluded both Van Buren and his opponents. Van Buren's remedy--continuing Jackson's deflationary policies--only deepened and prolonged the depression.

Declaring that the panic was due to recklessness in business and overexpansion of credit, Van Buren devoted himself to maintaining the solvency of the national Government. He opposed not only the creation of a new Bank of the United States but also the placing of Government funds in state banks. He fought for the establishment of an independent treasury system to handle Government transactions. As for Federal aid to internal improvements, he cut off expenditures so completely that the Government even sold the tools it had used on public works.

Inclined more and more to oppose the expansion of slavery, Van Buren blocked the annexation of Texas because it assuredly would add to slave territory--and it might bring war with Mexico.

Defeated by the Whigs in 1840 for reelection, he was an unsuccessful candidate for President on the Free Soil ticket in 1848. He died in 1862.

7. ANDREW JACKSON 1829-1837

2009-05-26T21:16:00.001+07:00

More nearly than any of his predecessors, Andrew Jackson was elected by popular vote; as President he sought to act as the direct representative of the common man.

Born in a backwoods settlement in the Carolinas in 1767, he received sporadic education. But in his late teens he read law for about two years, and he became an outstanding young lawyer in Tennessee. Fiercely jealous of his honor, he engaged in brawls, and in a duel killed a man who cast an unjustified slur on his wife Rachel.

Jackson prospered sufficiently to buy slaves and to build a mansion, the Hermitage, near Nashville. He was the first man elected from Tennessee to the House of Representatives, and he served briefly in the Senate. A major general in the War of 1812, Jackson became a national hero when he defeated the British at New Orleans.

In 1824 some state political factions rallied around Jackson; by 1828 enough had joined "Old Hickory" to win numerous state elections and control of the Federal administration in Washington.

In his first Annual Message to Congress, Jackson recommended eliminating the Electoral College. He also tried to democratize Federal officeholding. Already state machines were being built on patronage, and a New York Senator openly proclaimed "that to the victors belong the spoils. . . . "

Jackson took a milder view. Decrying officeholders who seemed to enjoy life tenure, he believed Government duties could be "so plain and simple" that offices should rotate among deserving applicants.

As national politics polarized around Jackson and his opposition, two parties grew out of the old Republican Party--the Democratic Republicans, or Democrats, adhering to Jackson; and the National Republicans, or Whigs, opposing him.

Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and other Whig leaders proclaimed themselves defenders of popular liberties against the usurpation of Jackson. Hostile cartoonists portrayed him as King Andrew I.

Behind their accusations lay the fact that Jackson, unlike previous Presidents, did not defer to Congress in policy-making but used his power of the veto and his party leadership to assume command.

The greatest party battle centered around the Second Bank of the United States, a private corporation but virtually a Government-sponsored monopoly. When Jackson appeared hostile toward it, the Bank threw its power against him.

Clay and Webster, who had acted as attorneys for the Bank, led the fight for its recharter in Congress. "The bank," Jackson told Martin Van Buren, "is trying to kill me, but I will kill it!" Jackson, in vetoing the recharter bill, charged the Bank with undue economic privilege.

His views won approval from the American electorate; in 1832 he polled more than 56 percent of the popular vote and almost five times as many electoral votes as Clay.

Jackson met head-on the challenge of John C. Calhoun, leader of forces trying to rid themselves of a high protective tariff.

When South Carolina undertook to nullify the tariff, Jackson ordered armed forces to Charleston and privately threatened to hang Calhoun. Violence seemed imminent until Clay negotiated a compromise: tariffs were lowered and South Carolina dropped nullification.

In January of 1832, while the President was dining with friends at the White House, someone whispered to him that the Senate had rejected the nomination of Martin Van Buren as Minister to England. Jackson jumped to his feet and exclaimed, "By the Eternal! I'll smash them!" So he did. His favorite, Van Buren, became Vice President, and succeeded to the Presidency when "Old Hickory" retired to the Hermitage, where he died in June 1845.

6. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 1825-1829

2009-05-26T21:08:00.001+07:00

The first President who was the son of a President, John Quincy Adams in many respects paralleled the career as well as the temperament and viewpoints of his illustrious father. Born in Braintree, Massachusetts, in 1767, he watched the Battle of Bunker Hill from the top of Penn's Hill above the family farm. As secretary to his father in Europe, he became an accomplished linguist and assiduous diarist.

After graduating from Harvard College, he became a lawyer. At age 26 he was appointed Minister to the Netherlands, then promoted to the Berlin Legation. In 1802 he was elected to the United States Senate. Six years later President Madison appointed him Minister to Russia.

Serving under President Monroe, Adams was one of America's great Secretaries of State, arranging with England for the joint occupation of the Oregon country, obtaining from Spain the cession of the Floridas, and formulating with the President the Monroe Doctrine.

In the political tradition of the early 19th century, Adams as Secretary of State was considered the political heir to the Presidency. But the old ways of choosing a President were giving way in 1824 before the clamor for a popular choice.

Within the one and only party--the Republican--sectionalism and factionalism were developing, and each section put up its own candidate for the Presidency. Adams, the candidate of the North, fell behind Gen. Andrew Jackson in both popular and electoral votes, but received more than William H. Crawford and Henry Clay. Since no candidate had a majority of electoral votes, the election was decided among the top three by the House of Representatives. Clay, who favored a program similar to that of Adams, threw his crucial support in the House to the New Englander.

Upon becoming President, Adams appointed Clay as Secretary of State. Jackson and his angry followers charged that a "corrupt bargain" had taken place and immediately began their campaign to wrest the Presidency from Adams in 1828.

Well aware that he would face hostility in Congress, Adams nevertheless proclaimed in his first Annual Message a spectacular national program. He proposed that the Federal Government bring the sections together with a network of highways and canals, and that it develop and conserve the public domain, using funds from the sale of public lands. In 1828, he broke ground for the 185-mile C & 0 Canal.

Adams also urged the United States to take a lead in the development of the arts and sciences through the establishment of a national university, the financing of scientific expeditions, and the erection of an observatory. His critics declared such measures transcended constitutional limitations.

The campaign of 1828, in which his Jacksonian opponents charged him with corruption and public plunder, was an ordeal Adams did not easily bear. After his defeat he returned to Massachusetts, expecting to spend the remainder of his life enjoying his farm and his books.

Unexpectedly, in 1830, the Plymouth district elected him to the House of Representatives, and there for the remainder of his life he served as a powerful leader. Above all, he fought against circumscription of civil liberties.

In 1836 southern Congressmen passed a "gag rule" providing that the House automatically table petitions against slavery. Adams tirelessly fought the rule for eight years until finally he obtained its repeal.

In 1848, he collapsed on the floor of the House from a stroke and was carried to the Speaker's Room, where two days later he died. He was buried--as were his father, mother, and wife--at First Parish Church in Quincy. To the end, "Old Man Eloquent" had fought for what he considered right.

5. JAMES MONROE 1817-1825

2009-05-26T21:02:00.003+07:00

On New Year's Day, 1825, at the last of his annual White House receptions, President James Monroe made a pleasing impression upon a Virginia lady who shook his hand:

"He is tall and well formed. His dress plain and in the old style.... His manner was quiet and dignified. From the frank, honest expression of his eye ... I think he well deserves the encomium passed upon him by the great Jefferson, who said, 'Monroe was so honest that if you turned his soul inside out there would not be a spot on it.' "

Born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, in 1758, Monroe attended the College of William and Mary, fought with distinction in the Continental Army, and practiced law in Fredericksburg, Virginia.

As a youthful politician, he joined the anti-Federalists in the Virginia Convention which ratified the Constitution, and in 1790, an advocate of Jeffersonian policies, was elected United States Senator. As Minister to France in 1794-1796, he displayed strong sympathies for the French cause; later, with Robert R. Livingston, he helped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase.

His ambition and energy, together with the backing of President Madison, made him the Republican choice for the Presidency in 1816. With little Federalist opposition, he easily won re-election in 1820.

Monroe made unusually strong Cabinet choices, naming a Southerner, John C. Calhoun, as Secretary of War, and a northerner, John Quincy Adams, as Secretary of State. Only Henry Clay's refusal kept Monroe from adding an outstanding Westerner.

Early in his administration, Monroe undertook a goodwill tour. At Boston, his visit was hailed as the beginning of an "Era of Good Feelings." Unfortunately these "good feelings" did not endure, although Monroe, his popularity undiminished, followed nationalist policies.

Across the facade of nationalism, ugly sectional cracks appeared. A painful economic depression undoubtedly increased the dismay of the people of the Missouri Territory in 1819 when their application for admission to the Union as a slave state failed. An amended bill for gradually eliminating slavery in Missouri precipitated two years of bitter debate in Congress.

The Missouri Compromise bill resolved the struggle, pairing Missouri as a slave state with Maine, a free state, and barring slavery north and west of Missouri forever.

In foreign affairs Monroe proclaimed the fundamental policy that bears his name, responding to the threat that the more conservative governments in Europe might try to aid Spain in winning back her former Latin American colonies. Monroe did not begin formally to recognize the young sister republics until 1822, after ascertaining that Congress would vote appropriations for diplomatic missions. He and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams wished to avoid trouble with Spain until it had ceded the Floridas, as was done in 1821.

Great Britain, with its powerful navy, also opposed reconquest of Latin America and suggested that the United States join in proclaiming "hands off." Ex-Presidents Jefferson and Madison counseled Monroe to accept the offer, but Secretary Adams advised, "It would be more candid ... to avow our principles explicitly to Russia and France, than to come in as a cock-boat in the wake of the British man-of-war."

Monroe accepted Adams's advice. Not only must Latin America be left alone, he warned, but also Russia must not encroach southward on the Pacific coast. ". . . the American continents," he stated, "by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European Power." Some 20 years after Monroe died in 1831, this became known as the Monroe Doctrine.

4. JAMES MADISON 1809-1817

2009-05-26T20:58:00.001+07:00

At his inauguration, James Madison, a small, wizened man, appeared old and worn; Washington Irving described him as "but a withered little apple-John." But whatever his deficiencies in charm, Madison's buxom wife Dolley compensated for them with her warmth and gaiety. She was the toast of Washington.

Born in 1751, Madison was brought up in Orange County, Virginia, and attended Princeton (then called the College of New Jersey). A student of history and government, well-read in law, he participated in the framing of the Virginia Constitution in 1776, served in the Continental Congress, and was a leader in the Virginia Assembly.

When delegates to the Constitutional Convention assembled at Philadelphia, the 36-year-old Madison took frequent and emphatic part in the debates.

Madison made a major contribution to the ratification of the Constitution by writing, with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, the Federalist essays. In later years, when he was referred to as the "Father of the Constitution," Madison protested that the document was not "the off-spring of a single brain," but "the work of many heads and many hands."

In Congress, he helped frame the Bill of Rights and enact the first revenue legislation. Out of his leadership in opposition to Hamilton's financial proposals, which he felt would unduly bestow wealth and power upon northern financiers, came the development of the Republican, or Jeffersonian, Party.

As President Jefferson's Secretary of State, Madison protested to warring France and Britain that their seizure of American ships was contrary to international law. The protests, John Randolph acidly commented, had the effect of "a shilling pamphlet hurled against eight hundred ships of war."

Despite the unpopular Embargo Act of 1807, which did not make the belligerent nations change their ways but did cause a depression in the United States, Madison was elected President in 1808. Before he took office the Embargo Act was repealed.

During the first year of Madison's Administration, the United States prohibited trade with both Britain and France; then in May, 1810, Congress authorized trade with both, directing the President, if either would accept America's view of neutral rights, to forbid trade with the other nation.

Napoleon pretended to comply. Late in 1810, Madison proclaimed non-intercourse with Great Britain. In Congress a young group including Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, the "War Hawks," pressed the President for a more militant policy.

The British impressment of American seamen and the seizure of cargoes impelled Madison to give in to the pressure. On June 1, 1812, he asked Congress to declare war.

The young Nation was not prepared to fight; its forces took a severe trouncing. The British entered Washington and set fire to the White House and the Capitol.

But a few notable naval and military victories, climaxed by Gen. Andrew Jackson's triumph at New Orleans, convinced Americans that the War of 1812 had been gloriously successful. An upsurge of nationalism resulted. The New England Federalists who had opposed the war--and who had even talked secession--were so thoroughly repudiated that Federalism disappeared as a national party.

In retirement at Montpelier, his estate in Orange County, Virginia, Madison spoke out against the disruptive states' rights influences that by the 1830's threatened to shatter the Federal Union. In a note opened after his death in 1836, he stated, "The advice nearest to my heart and deepest in my convictions is that the Union of the States be cherished and perpetuated."

3. THOMAS JEFFERSON 1801-1809

2009-05-26T20:49:00.001+07:00

In the thick of party conflict in 1800, Thomas Jefferson wrote in a private letter, "I have sworn upon the altar of God eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man."

This powerful advocate of liberty was born in 1743 in Albemarle County, Virginia, inheriting from his father, a planter and surveyor, some 5,000 acres of land, and from his mother, a Randolph, high social standing. He studied at the College of William and Mary, then read law. In 1772 he married Martha Wayles Skelton, a widow, and took her to live in his partly constructed mountaintop home, Monticello.

Freckled and sandy-haired, rather tall and awkward, Jefferson was eloquent as a correspondent, but he was no public speaker. In the Virginia House of Burgesses and the Continental Congress, he contributed his pen rather than his voice to the patriot cause. As the "silent member" of the Congress, Jefferson, at 33, drafted the Declaration of Independence. In years following he labored to make its words a reality in Virginia. Most notably, he wrote a bill establishing religious freedom, enacted in 1786.

Jefferson succeeded Benjamin Franklin as minister to France in 1785. His sympathy for the French Revolution led him into conflict with Alexander Hamilton when Jefferson was Secretary of State in President Washington's Cabinet. He resigned in 1793.

Sharp political conflict developed, and two separate parties, the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans, began to form. Jefferson gradually assumed leadership of the Republicans, who sympathized with the revolutionary cause in France. Attacking Federalist policies, he opposed a strong centralized Government and championed the rights of states.

As a reluctant candidate for President in 1796, Jefferson came within three votes of election. Through a flaw in the Constitution, he became Vice President, although an opponent of President Adams. In 1800 the defect caused a more serious problem. Republican electors, attempting to name both a President and a Vice President from their own party, cast a tie vote between Jefferson and Aaron Burr. The House of Representatives settled the tie. Hamilton, disliking both Jefferson and Burr, nevertheless urged Jefferson's election.

When Jefferson assumed the Presidency, the crisis in France had passed. He slashed Army and Navy expenditures, cut the budget, eliminated the tax on whiskey so unpopular in the West, yet reduced the national debt by a third. He also sent a naval squadron to fight the Barbary pirates, who were harassing American commerce in the Mediterranean. Further, although the Constitution made no provision for the acquisition of new land, Jefferson suppressed his qualms over constitutionality when he had the opportunity to acquire the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon in 1803.

During Jefferson's second term, he was increasingly preoccupied with keeping the Nation from involvement in the Napoleonic wars, though both England and France interfered with the neutral rights of American merchantmen. Jefferson's attempted solution, an embargo upon American shipping, worked badly and was unpopular.

Jefferson retired to Monticello to ponder such projects as his grand designs for the University of Virginia. A French nobleman observed that he had placed his house and his mind "on an elevated situation, from which he might contemplate the universe."

He died on July 4, 1826.